Higher seasonal temperature enhances the occurrence of methicillin resistance of Staphylococcus aureus in house flies (Musca domestica) under hospital and environmental settings

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) emergence in commensal and pathogenic bacteria is a global health issue. House flies (Musca domestica) are considered as biological and mechanical vectors for pathogens causing nosocomial infections, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). However, the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance and the role of temperature on the occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA in house flies in a hospital environment have not been studied. A total of 400 house flies were collected in winter and summer from four hospital-associated areas in Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Detection of S. aureus and MRSA in flies was done by culturing, staining, and PCR methods targeting nuc and mec genes (mecA and mecC), respectively. Disc diffusion test was used to detect resistance phenotype against six antimicrobials. Logistic regression models were constructed to assess the effect of temperature on the frequency of antimicrobial resistance, and on the presence of the nuc and mecA genes, and location of samples in and around a hospital environment. By PCR, S. aureus was detected in 208 (52%) samples. High frequencies of resistance (≥ 80% of isolates) to amoxicillin, azithromycin, and oxacillin were observed by disk diffusion test. Increase in temperature had a positive effect on the occurrence of S. aureus and MRSA isolates as well as on their resistance to individual and multiple antimicrobials. Among the study areas, hospital premises had increased odds of having S. aureus. Increased temperature of summer significantly increased the occurrence of MRSA in house flies in and around the hospital environment, which might pose a human and animal health risk.

Virulence Determinants and Methicillin Resistance in Biofilm-Forming Staphylococcus aureus from Various Food Sources in Bangladesh

“…In our study, 61% (61/100) of biofilm-forming S. aureus isolates harbored the methicillin resistance gene, mecA . The standard gold method for detecting MRSA isolates is mecA detection via PCR [ 42 ]; however, in our study, the mecA gene was absent in 39% of S. aureus isolates that were phenotypically MRSA. The inconsistency of the correlation between phenotypic and genotypic resistance of MRSA might be due to the mutation of genes that result in non-functional proteins and the dearth of gene expression [ 43 ].…”

“…The inconsistency of the correlation between phenotypic and genotypic resistance of MRSA might be due to the mutation of genes that result in non-functional proteins and the dearth of gene expression [ 43 ]. In addition, the absence of the mecA gene in the MRSA isolates might be due to the detection methods we used, or those MRSA isolates could harbor other methicillin resistance genes, such as mecB , mecC , or mecD [ 42 ]. Our findings suggest the possible presence of other intrinsic and extrinsic factors having the ability to compete with the mecA gene for developing MRSA.…”

A Systematic Review on the Occurrence of Antimicrobial‐Resistant Escherichia coli in Poultry and Poultry Environments in Bangladesh between 2010 and 2021

“…AMR is a problem for global public health, and when MDR strains appear, bacteria pose a serious threat to healthcare communities [ 62 ]. In this review, 14 out of 17 articles showed MDR E. coli ; among them, the majority of the articles (9/17) reported 100% MDR E. coli in poultry and/or poultry environments.…”

Phenotypic and Genotypic Detection of Biofilm-Forming Staphylococcus aureus from Different Food Sources in Bangladesh

“…Isolates having golden-yellow colonies on MSA agar plates were assumed to be S. aureus , and they were sub-cultured on MSA plates to obtain pure colonies. Moreover, the purity of the colonies was checked by culturing on 5% bovine blood agar plates, followed by incubating at 37 °C for 24 h. Presumptive S. aureus colonies were then isolated by Gram staining, Voges–Proskauer tests, glucose and mannitol utilization tests, catalase tests, and coagulase tests [ 13 ].…”