“…HMGB1 is passively released from necrotic cells and can also be actively secreted by immune cells (Figure 1C) such as macrophages [44], microglia [45], neutrophils [46], and natural killer cells [47], and also by non-immune cells, such as fibroblasts [48], epithelial cells [49,50], neurons [33], platelets [51], hepatocytes [52], and cardiomyocytes [53]. The active secretion of HMGB1 is triggered by microbial pathogens such as lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)) [44,52,54], or endogenous substances, such as ROS [55], reactive nitrogen species (RNS) [56], hyperglycemia [53], inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α [49], interferon (IFN)-α [54], INF-γ [57], ATP [19,58], nitric oxide [54], calcium phosphate-based mineralo-organic particles [46], and also by cell-to-cell interaction [47].…”