High Levels of Exotic Armored Scales on Imported Avocados Raise Concerns Regarding USDA–APHIS’ Phytosanitary Risk Assessment

Morse, J. G.; Rugman‐Jones, Paul F.; Watson, Gillian W.; Robinson, Lindsay; Bi, J. L.; Stouthamer, Richard

doi:10.1603/029.102.0303

Cited by 27 publications

(18 citation statements)

References 26 publications

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“…Assessing the viability of immobile organisms usually involves either maintaining them in the laboratory to observe whether or not they continue their development (Zettler et al 2002, Johnson and, observing their response to physical stimulation (Follett 2004, Zulhendri et al 2012, or assessing their turgidity (Barak et al 2009, Morse et al 2009), color (Hara et al 1993), or both (Whiting et al 1998). These approaches have limitations because laboratory rearing is slow and sometimes complex, and morphological assessments require signiÞcant technical skill and time, and can be subjective.…”

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confidence: 99%

Development and Validation of a Quick Easily Used Biochemical Assay for Evaluating the Viability of Small Immobile Arthropods

et al. 2013

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Quickly, accurately, and easily assessing the efficacy of treatments to control sessile arthropods (e.g., scale insects) and stationary immature life stages (e.g., eggs and pupae) is problematic because it is difficult to tell whether treated organisms are alive or dead. Current approaches usually involve either maintaining organisms in the laboratory to observe them for development, gauging their response to physical stimulation, or assessing morphological characters such as turgidity and color. These can be slow, technically difficult, or subjective, and the validity of methods other than laboratory rearing has seldom been tested. Here, we describe development and validation of a quick easily used biochemical colorimetric assay for measuring the viability of arthropods that is sufficiently sensitive to test even very small organisms such as white fly eggs. The assay was adapted from a technique for staining the enzyme hexokinase to signal the presence of adenosine triphosphate in viable specimens by reducing a tetrazolium salt to formazan. Basic laboratory facilities and skills are required for production of the stain, but no specialist equipment, expertise, or facilities are needed for its use.

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confidence: 99%

Development and Validation of a Quick Easily Used Biochemical Assay for Evaluating the Viability of Small Immobile Arthropods

et al. 2013

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“…In 2007, the last trade restriction was removed on the >90 yr ban on avocado imports into the United States from Mexico (Stouthamer & Morse 2011), and almost immediately an undescribed scale was intercepted by inspectors with the California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) (Morse et al 2009). Aguacatae scale, Davidsonaspis aguacatae (Evans, Watson & Miller) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) was described in the genus Abgrallaspis Balachowsky based on specimens infesting imported avocados (Evans et al 2009), but subsequently transferred to Davidsonaspis (Normark et al 2014).…”

Section: Armored Scales (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) Infesting Hass Avocamentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Aguacatae scale, Davidsonaspis aguacatae (Evans, Watson & Miller) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) was described in the genus Abgrallaspis Balachowsky based on specimens infesting imported avocados (Evans et al 2009), but subsequently transferred to Davidsonaspis (Normark et al 2014). Because Hass and other avocado varieties are grown commercially in California, the frequency with which this pest was entering California was a concern for regulators with CDFA, and attempts to impose regulations resulted in a now-settled trade dispute, which is summarized by Morse et al (2009).…”

Section: Armored Scales (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) Infesting Hass Avocamentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The US-DA considers fruit packaged for consumption and distributed directly to retailers a low-risk entry pathway for armored scales. However, although the risk may be low, the interdiction history in California (Morse et al 2009) and FDACS-DPI interception records from >100 avocado shipments indicate that it is not zero.…”

Section: Armored Scales (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) Infesting Hass Avocamentioning

confidence: 99%

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Armored Scale Insects (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) of San Lorenzo National Park, Panama, with Descriptions of Two New Species

Normark

Morse

Krewinski

et al. 2014

Annals of the Entomological Society of America

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Armored scale insects include invasive economic pests that have been widely studied in human-altered habitats but have received less attention in natural habitats. Although armored scale insects are nearly ubiquitous associates of woody plants, they generally go uncollected in general surveys because they are not susceptible to mass collecting techniques, such as fogging, beating, or trapping. San Lorenzo National Park in Panama was the subject of a recent high-profile effort to quantify the arthropod diversity in a tropical forest (Basset et al. 2012). Here, we contribute to understanding the biodiversity of this classic site by reporting the armored scale insect species we found there in August 2010. We found that, unlike other rainforest canopy taxa, the armored scale insect fauna is dominated by highly polyphagous cosmopolitan pests. However, we also found new species, and we describe two of them here: Furcaspis douglorum Okusu & Normark n. sp. and Hemiberlesia andradae Okusu & Normark n. sp. We provide amendments to the relevant keys, including a new key to New World species of Hemiberlesia Cockerell that lack perivulvar pores. In this context, we treat Abgrallaspis Balachowsky as asubjective synonym of Hemiberlesia, and we transfer its species to Hemiberlesia, except for the following assignments to other genera Affirmaspis flavida (De Lotto), n. comb., Aspidiotus furcillae Brain, rev. comb., Clavaspis perseae (Davidson), n. comb., Diaspidiotus fraxini (McKenzie), n. comb., and Davidsonaspis aguacatae (Evans, Watson, and Miller), n. comb. Davidsonaspis Normark, n. gen. We regard Abgrallaspis azadirachti Ojha and A narainus Dutta & Singh as synonyms of Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead), new synonymy.

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“…H. lataniae and A. aguacatae were collected from imported avocado fruit as part of another study (Morse et al 2009), D. perniciosus was obtained from Kent Daane (University of California, Berkeley, CA) and A. nerii was obtained from Robert Luck (University of California, Riverside [UCR], CA). Subsequent bioassays concentrated on a single species, A. nerii, and active crawlers (Ͻ1 d old) were obtained daily from FAR, Inc. (Corona, CA).…”

Section: Source Of Experimental Insects and General Bioassay Conditionsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Phoretic Dispersal of Armored Scale Crawlers (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

Magsig-Castillo¹,

Morse²,

Walker³

et al. 2010

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Dispersal and colonization of new areas by armored scale insects (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) is achieved by mobile first-instar nymphs, called crawlers. Few studies have considered the actual mechanisms by which crawlers disperse, and although crawlers are capable of actively wandering over short distances (generally < 1 m), their dispersal over longer distances has been thought to be wind-mediated. Here, we present evidence of a potentially more important means of dispersal over longer distances (> 1 m). We first confirmed that crawlers of four species of Diaspididae [Abgrallaspis aguacatae Evans, Watson & Miller; Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret); Aspidiotus nerii Bouché; and Diaspidiotus perniciosus (Comstock)] have four hairs on the end of each of their legs and that each of these hairs ends in a suction cup-like structure, reminiscent of the attachment structures possessed by phoretic mites. In a controlled environment, using crawlers of A. nerii, we then showed that the crawlers use these structures to attach themselves to three different insect species [Musca domestica L., Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant and Linepithema humile (Mayr)] and can effectively be moved phoretically by these insects. Crawlers can remain attached to flying insects for considerable periods of time, suggesting that this may be an important means of dispersal for armored scale insects. The importance of phoresy for diaspidid dispersal in the field remains to be determined.

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High Levels of Exotic Armored Scales on Imported Avocados Raise Concerns Regarding USDA–APHIS’ Phytosanitary Risk Assessment

Cited by 27 publications

References 26 publications

Development and Validation of a Quick Easily Used Biochemical Assay for Evaluating the Viability of Small Immobile Arthropods

Development and Validation of a Quick Easily Used Biochemical Assay for Evaluating the Viability of Small Immobile Arthropods

Armored Scale Insects (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) of San Lorenzo National Park, Panama, with Descriptions of Two New Species

Phoretic Dispersal of Armored Scale Crawlers (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

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