Hierarchy of fear: experimentally testing ungulate reactions to lion, African wild dog and cheetah

Abstract

Experiments have begun demonstrating that the fear (antipredator behavioral responses) large carnivores inspire in ungulates can shape ecosystem structure and function. Most such experiments have focused on the impacts of either just one large carnivore, or all as a whole, rather than the different impacts different large carnivores may have in intact multi-predator-prey systems. Experimentally testing the relative fearfulness ungulates demonstrate toward different large carnivores is a necessary first step in addressing these likely differing impacts. We tested the fearfulness ungulates demonstrated to playbacks of lion (Panthera leo), African wild dog (Lycaon pictus), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) or non-predator control (bird) vocalizations, in Greater Kruger National Park, South Africa. Ungulates ran most to lions, then wild dogs, and then cheetahs, demonstrating a very clear hierarchy of fear. Those that did not run looked toward the sound more on hearing large carnivores than controls, looking most on hearing lions. Notably, prey species-specific population level kill rates by each predator did not predict the patterns observed. Our results demonstrate that different large carnivores inspire different levels of fear in their ungulate prey, pointing to differing community-level impacts, which we discuss in relation to the ongoing worldwide decline and loss of large carnivores.

Frightened of giants: fear responses to elephants approach that of predators

“…The effects on individuals running from elephant vocalizations were slightly weaker on average compared to the most lethal predator on our site (leopard) but the amount of vigilance behaviour was comparable between elephant and leopard vocalizations. Moreover, our average ungulate run response (48%) to elephant vocalizations was comparable to their response to wild dogs ( Lycaon pictus ) (47%) [35] and greater than their response to spotted hyena ( Crocuta crocuta ) (35%) and domestic dog ( Canis familiaris ) vocalizations (34%) quantified in a study using a similar approach in this area [22]. However, this run response varied in magnitude across ungulate species from 74% of impala running compared with only 39% of nyala (figure 1 a ).…”

Diurnal and Nocturnal Behaviour of Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and Lions (Panthera leo) in Zoos

“…In the wild, ecological factors such as activity of prey and predation risk potentially lead to different activity and hunting peaks between lions and cheetahs [ 93 , 94 , 95 ]. In zoos, obviously, hunting became obsolete for cheetahs and lions.…”

Rewilding Apex Predators Has Effects on Lower Trophic Levels: Cheetahs and Ungulates in a Woodland Savanna

“…The difference in size among prey species will result in varying risk-avoidance behaviour in response to predation risk by a given predator species [ 40 , 43 ], in this case the cheetah. In a recent study, small, medium, and large African ungulates were presented with lion ( Panthera leo ), African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ), and cheetah vocalizations to represent a multi-predator system [ 63 ]. The prey under consideration exhibited the strongest fear response to the predator most likely to kill the respective prey species, and the response was related to body size and sociality of the respective predator [ 63 ].…”

“…In a recent study, small, medium, and large African ungulates were presented with lion ( Panthera leo ), African wild dog ( Lycaon pictus ), and cheetah vocalizations to represent a multi-predator system [ 63 ]. The prey under consideration exhibited the strongest fear response to the predator most likely to kill the respective prey species, and the response was related to body size and sociality of the respective predator [ 63 ]. In our study, the increase of kudu with cheetah presence could be attributed to lower predation risk for kudu from cheetah as compared to smaller herbivores available in the study system.…”

“…The activity patterns of ungulates in our system could be partially related to risk avoidance tactics, as cheetah activity tends to peak in the early morning (~6:00) in the broader region [ 64 ]. Studies evaluating risk avoidance behaviour by ungulates have observed stronger adaptive responses of prey species to ambush hunters (i.e., leopard) compared to cursorial hunters (i.e., cheetahs) [ 5 , 40 , 46 , 63 ].…”