Hierarchies, Networks, and Causality: The Applied Evolutionary Epistemological Approach

Abstract

Applied Evolutionary Epistemology is a scientific-philosophical theory that defines evolution as the set of phenomena whereby units evolve at levels of ontological hierarchies by mechanisms and processes. This theory also provides a methodology to study evolution, namely, studying evolution involves identifying the units that evolve, the levels at which they evolve, and the mechanisms and processes whereby they evolve. Identifying units and levels of evolution in turn requires the development of ontological hierarchy theories, and examining mechanisms and processes necessitates theorizing about causality. Together, hierarchy and causality theories explain how biorealities form and diversify with time. This paper analyzes how Applied EE redefines both hierarchy and causality theories in the light of the recent explosion of network approaches to causal reasoning associated with studies on reticulate and macroevolution. Causality theories have often been framed from within a rigid, ladder-like hierarchy theory where the rungs of the ladder represent the different levels, and the elements on the rungs represent the evolving units. Causality then is either defined reductionistically as an upward movement along the strands of a singular hierarchy, or holistically as a downward movement along that same hierarchy. Upward causation theories thereby analyze causal processes in time, i.e. over the course of natural history or phylogenetically, as Darwin and the founders of the Modern Synthesis intended. Downward causation theories analyze causal processes in space, ontogenetically or ecologically, as the current eco-evo-devo schools are evidencing. This work demonstrates how macroevolution and reticulate evolution theories add to the complexity by examining reticulate causal processes in space-time, and the interactional hierarchies that such studies bring forth introduce a new form of causation that is here called reticulate causation. Reticulate causation occurs between units and levels belonging to different as well as to the same ontological hierarchies. This article concludes that beyond recognizing the existence of multiple units, levels, and mechanisms or processes of evolution, also the existence of multiple kinds of evolutionary causation as well as the existence of multiple evolutionary hierarchies needs to be acknowledged. This furthermore implies that evolution is a pluralistic process divisible into different kinds.

Reticulate evolution underlies synergistic trait formation in human communities

“…A more pluralistic account of evolution is needed, 44 and reticulate evolution has an important role to play in this ongoing debate. 3,6,[45][46][47][48][49]…”

“…These ideas reach back to the works of Alfred Kroeber, 61 who, as one of the founders of We are just now coming to terms with the remarkable resemblances there are between reticulate biological and sociocultural evolution, and here, the transition from tree to network thinking, or from intrapopulation to between-population thinking itself forms part of a broader scientific revolution. 3 In this part, we focus our attention on three critical cases in sociocultural research where reticulate evolution has been overlooked: human-animal, plant, and machine interactions; diet-microbiome interactions; and host-virome and other pathogen interactions.…”

“…It demands a more selection-neutral definition of evolution as the universal process that occurs when units evolve at levels of ontological hierarchies by mechanisms and processes. 3 In addition, also the old units and levels of selection debate, and multilevel selection theory, need to expand toward other units and levels, not of selection per se, but of evolution in general. Evolution occurs through numerous units, levels, mechanisms and processes, and such brings forth the need to recognize ontological pluralism.…”

“…Reticulate evolution instead requires network typologies and web of life metaphors that depict how organisms belonging to different species interact in space. [2][3][4] Combining tree and network analyses gives a more complete outlook of how evolution occurs. 5 The growing recognition of the widespread occurrence of reticulate interactions within and between organisms and species belonging to different evolutionary lineages has demanded a reconceptualization of the scope and the limitations of the classic Neo-Darwinian paradigm.…”

“…As such, natural selection brings forth a pattern of descent with modification.When understood from within hierarchy theory,59,[124][125][126][127][128] that means that genes residing on a microlevel are thought to bring forth organisms on a mesolevel (where environmental selection occurs) and such brings forth species on a macrolevel. When understood from within causality theory,3 the lower level of a hierarchy (genes) is thought to bring forth the focal level (organisms) and the focal level is thought to bring forth the upper level (species). In technical terms, this defines upward causation and upward causation is often associated with reductionist schools of thought because there is a tendency to reduce causality to the lower level of an evolutionary hierarchy.…”