Heterogeneous macrophages: Supersensors of exogenous inducing factors

Abstract

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creat ive Commo ns Attri butio n-NonCo mmerc ial-NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non-commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made. AbstractAs heterogeneous immune cells, macrophages mount effective responses to various internal and external changes during disease progression. Macrophage polarization, rather than macrophage heterogenization, is often used to describe the functional differences between macrophages. While macrophage polarization partially contrib-

A novel approach to single cell analysis to reveal intrinsic differences in immune marker expression in unstimulated macrophages from BALB/c and C57BL/6 mouse strains

“…As in other populations of cells or organisms, the diversity of macrophages is viewed as a ‘‘bet hedging’’ strategy [7,8] for the immune system, whereby a range of cellular phenotypes is induced upon immune activation, in anticipation of phenotypic variation of the pathogen. This strategy enables the immune system to rapidly respond to diverse types of rapidly evolving pathogens [9]. An interesting system for investigating the origin and potential implications of macrophage heterogeneity consists of the laboratory mouse strains C57BL/6 and BALB/c, which naturally differ in their innate immune response.…”

Nanosensor Chemical Cytometry for Characterizing the Efflux Heterogeneity of Nitric Oxide from Macrophages

“…3,4 This has complicated the connection between the overall immune response and the genomic and proteomic characteristics of individual macrophages. 5 There is a pressing need for technology that can bridge the detection of single-cell phenotypes of statistically significant cell populations to understand and characterize collective responses. 6 The ability to analyze individual living cells means that multiplex diagnostics are enabled in series, a workflow that is necessary to address the problems of cellular complexity.…”

“…8 Accordingly, they respond to environmental changes in a highly heterogeneous manner to affect physiological and pathological processes. 5 Immune-stimulated macrophages phagocytose pathogens and cell debris, orchestrate tissue repair, and resolution of tissue injury by delicate RNS control based on iNOS. 9 In contrast, this RNS efflux also can damage the normal tissue cells to generate pathogenic effects and is widely involved in the development of various metabolic, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases.…”

“…Reactive nitrogen species (RNS) including nitric oxide (NO) play significant roles in numerous physiological processes as biochemical signaling molecules and as a part of the respiratory burst in the immune responses. , Immune cells such as macrophages exhibit considerable cell-to-cell heterogeneity in terms of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in inflammation response to infection. , This has complicated the connection between the overall immune response and the genomic and proteomic characteristics of individual macrophages . There is a pressing need for technology that can bridge the detection of single-cell phenotypes of statistically significant cell populations to understand and characterize collective responses .…”

“…Macrophages are widely distributed in the body with differences in their origin and are brought together by external factors and the internal local environment . Accordingly, they respond to environmental changes in a highly heterogeneous manner to affect physiological and pathological processes . Immune-stimulated macrophages phagocytose pathogens and cell debris, orchestrate tissue repair, and resolution of tissue injury by delicate RNS control based on iNOS .…”