Herd demography, sexual segregation and the effects of forest management on Bornean banteng Bos javanicus lowi in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo

Abstract

mains, with loss increasing by 210 100 ha yr −1 (Hansen et al. 2013). Between 1990 and 2010, tropical forest cover was reduced from 1635 mil lion ha to 1514 million ha, with 32.9 million ha lost in Southeast Asia (Achard et al. 2014). Overexploitation and agricultural activities are the primary threats to species worldwide

A Review of Mammalian Availability as Salt-Lick Tourism Supply

“…On the contrary, mammal individuals may visit to mineral licks with permanent spring water more frequently for drinking water during dry season [18]. This phenomenon can be a possible explanation to the significantly high visiting frequency of female Banteng herd to mineral licks during dry season [24], although further research is required to scientifically proof this hypothesis in future. In a nutshell, seasonal rainfall has prominent effect to mammalian availability at the licks.…”

“…Impacts of daily rainfall, cloud cover, luminosity, and ambient temperature over mammalian availability at mineral lick were determined to be insignificant [20,24,44], although viewing success of diurnal mammals at the licks were higher during middays with zero cloud and maximal ambient temperature [30]. Then, influence of moon phase (nocturnal luminosity) onto mammalian availability at the lick has yet been investigated by past researchers at the mean time.…”

“…Behavioural, morphological and identity characteristics affected the expectations of tourists in wanting to sight a mammal species, while physical availability, in terms of relative abundance or visiting frequency, visiting duration, and group size, affected the quality, quantity and probability of viewing the given species by tourists, at a destination site [4, 29, 42, 48, & 49]. Because of that, mammalian availability for salt-lick tourism can be represented by the six mentioned parameters, which can be evaluated quantitatively (group size, relative abundance, species richness, visiting frequency, and visiting duration) and qualitatively (morphological, behavioural and identity traits) respectively [21,24,35]. Generally, both the visiting frequency and relative abundance represent occupancy frequency of a mammal species [7, 10, 25, & 36], therefore reflects the viewing success of the given species by tourists at a mineral lick and under a particular time [4,48,49].…”

“…Diel activity patterns of mammals in visiting to mineral licks are different between species, hence group size, visiting frequency and duration are applied to categorize them as cathemeral (active throughout the day), diurnal (7.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m.), crepuscular (5:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m. and 5:00 a.m. to 7:00 a.m.), or nocturnal (7:00 p.m. to 5:00 a.m) species [21, 22, 33, & 35]. Then, sensitivity of a mammal individual towards the temporal change in weather condition is dependent towards its sex, species, age, and sense dependency, which can ultimately affect mammalian availability for a particular time or season at a mineral lick [24,35]. In other words, the temporal variability in weather condition, especially in terms of ambient temperature, rainfall, cloud cover, luminosity, and wind speed, can trigger spatial-temporal variability in mammalian availability at a mineral lick.…”

“…Rainfall is frequently employed in determining the seasonal climate condition of an area, because it defines the local water availability and subsequently affects the behaviours and responses of local mammal community. As an example, female Sambar Deer visited to the licks significantly more frequently during wet season than at dry season [35], while female Banteng (Bos javanicus) visited to the licks significantly more frequently during dry season than at wet season [24]. This is because wet season is known as the peak birth season, where mother individuals require high and frequent calcium intake for milk production throughout given time period [19,27].…”