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Life-Change and ‘Conversion’ in Antiquity: An Analysis of the Testimonies of Dion of Prousa and Aelius Aristeides
Our image of ‘conversion’ takes its form from well-known episodes in the lives of St Paul and St Augustine. Paul's life is turned around by a blinding vision of Jesus on the road to Damascus (Act. Ap. 9.1–22); Augustine is directed by an oracle to a scriptural passage that ends his hesitations and sets him on the course that he has long known he should take (August. Conf. 8.12). Very much in parallel, although in a non-Christian context, are crisis-provoked life-changes reported by the Second Sophistic orators Dion of Prousa and Aelius Aristeides. Aristeides finds his life transformed by the intervention of the god Asklepios; Dion receives – he claims, from a god – advice that, put into effect, makes him the philosopher he has aspired to be. Were Dion and Aristeides ‘converts’? Adopting a conservative definition of ‘conversion’, I will argue that their accounts – though not autobiographies in the strict sense of that term – can legitimately be called ‘conversion narratives’. I will then test each for its goodness-of-fit to two influential life-change models, the first developed by Arnold van Gennep and Victor Turner in the context of initiation rituals, and the second, Lewis Rambo's process model of conversion.
Life-Change and ‘Conversion’ in Antiquity: An Analysis of the Testimonies of Dion of Prousa and Aelius Aristeides
Our image of ‘conversion’ takes its form from well-known episodes in the lives of St Paul and St Augustine. Paul's life is turned around by a blinding vision of Jesus on the road to Damascus (Act. Ap. 9.1–22); Augustine is directed by an oracle to a scriptural passage that ends his hesitations and sets him on the course that he has long known he should take (August. Conf. 8.12). Very much in parallel, although in a non-Christian context, are crisis-provoked life-changes reported by the Second Sophistic orators Dion of Prousa and Aelius Aristeides. Aristeides finds his life transformed by the intervention of the god Asklepios; Dion receives – he claims, from a god – advice that, put into effect, makes him the philosopher he has aspired to be. Were Dion and Aristeides ‘converts’? Adopting a conservative definition of ‘conversion’, I will argue that their accounts – though not autobiographies in the strict sense of that term – can legitimately be called ‘conversion narratives’. I will then test each for its goodness-of-fit to two influential life-change models, the first developed by Arnold van Gennep and Victor Turner in the context of initiation rituals, and the second, Lewis Rambo's process model of conversion.
Hesiod's Theogony is not overtly concerned with the world of mortals. The place of humans in the Theogony nevertheless holds a certain fascination, perhaps more for what is not revealed—our origins, for example—than for what is. Focusing on a relatively neglected passage of the poem (Theogony 521-32), I want to trace here the way Hesiod lays out the cosmic coordinates of kleos (‘fame’ or ‘glory’) with a view to better situating the condition of mortality within the poem as a whole. Kleos, as we will see, is part of the fallout for humans of the battle of wits between Zeus and Prometheus: it is the compensation for their new, temporally inflected existence.
The purpose of this paper is to show that myths referring to activities of gods,demigods, of Hercules, but also to floods and other natural phenomena, have cores oftruth, that is they are genuine myths.The contrast between myth and reality applied by many is wrong, because it is basedon the false notion that all myths are fake. However, traditional myths are genuineand that means that they contain at their core true events of geological, astronomicaland historical content which are offered for interdisciplinary research.Cores of myths can be proved through interdisciplinary research, given their relationto applied sciences. Myths are spiritual and cultural palimpsests bearing scars of theirhistory, namely of their multiple-level use and crystallization.Let us first present some definitions of ancient writers on mythology. Indicatively, wequote two of them.a. According to Plato (Critias, 109 e 1 – 110 a 6), mythology, that is areasonable interpretation of myths, is a very careful and systematic investigation andresearch of past events.b. According to Plutarch of Chaeronea (On Daedali of Plataea, fr.157, 16 - 21),the old science of physics was a physical speech hidden deep within myths. So,according to Plutarch, genuine myths are scientific speeches hidden deep withinwraps made up of myths and formulated with cryptic words and innuendoes.In the next chapter, which discusses the interpretation of myths, the principles usefuland necessary to penetrate the myths’ cores of truth are identified.We then approach the geo-mythology and explain its essence. Specifically, the term"geo-mythology" was coined by an American geologist and volcanologist, DorothyVitaliano. According to her, geo-mythology is an interdisciplinary analysis of genuinemyths, which leads to the identification of geophysical and possibly other events,astronomical or historical, that underlie them. Sometimes this analysis provides valuable information and knowledge about floods, which are preserved under amythical wrap in the traditions of peoples, but also on otherwise unknown ancientearthquakes, seismic sea or lacustrian tsunami waves, technical structures andunknown astronomical phenomena (comet passes, eclipses, meteor falls, changes inthe north pole of the celestial sphere, correlations of constellations with specificheroes, etc.) that occurred in the distant past.We then explore the three cataclysms of the Greek tradition, the labours and works ofHercules, which present a geo-mythological interest, while proposing specific furtherresearch areas for better documentation.Finally, it investigates the osmosis of cultures of the eastern Mediterranean andanswers the question if the Greek mythology reflects geological and climatic changesthat rather occurred in the broader Aegean area or elsewhere in the world.In the chapter which discusses the interpretation of myths, the principles useful andnecessary to penetrate the myths’ cores of truth are identified.However, to perform properly the interpretation of myths of a geological andastronomical texture, comprehensive knowledge is required in the fields of geology,astronomy, archaeology, philology, history, comparative mythology andanthropology. The geological, astronomical and general scientific study of mythologycan reveal encoded memories of geological and astronomical events of the past, thusproviding a reservoir of scientific data. On the other hand, it also helps give a newperspective on historical, archaeological and anthropological research, openingwindows in the fields of knowledge that illuminate the early conception of the worldand improve the human self-knowledge.Following this, the paper deals with the three cataclysms of the Greek tradition,which are offered for geo-mythological research.Specifically, Diodorus Siculus writes on the flood of Dardanus: "This flood has inprinciple happened because the mouth around the Cyanean Rocks has opened, a sitewhere the Symplegades Rocks are located (their location was probably close to theexit of the Bosporus to the Black Sea); then opened the mouth of the Hellespont. Thisoccurred because the Sea of Pontus, that is the water body of the Black Sea, whichuntil then was a lake, was filled by the waters of rivers that flow into it, resulting to itslevel rising so much that it has overflowed the Strait of Bosporus, filled the Propontis and then, having overflowed the Strait of Hellespont as well, has rushed out into theAegean. The result was the flood of a large coastal area, not only in Asia but also inSamothrace".According to the research conducted, the flood of Dardanus took place in two phases:one in which the waters of the Black Sea poured into the Aegean Sea (between14,500 and 12,500 Before Present - BP) and one in which the waters of the AegeanSea, after the opening of the Strait of Bosporus, poured under the form of a largewaterfall in the Black Sea around year 7,600 BP (5,600 BC.). This second phase ofthe cataclysm has probably triggered the creation of the cataclysm myths ofAtrahasis, Ziusudra, Utnapistim and Noah. However, these two phases of the flood ofDardanus require additional systematic geological, geophysical and underwaterarchaeological research to be fully documented.Concerning the flood of Ogyges, Hellanicus writes that it occurred one thousandtwenty years before the first Olympiad. Given that the first Olympiad is placed in theyear 776 BC, it results that this flood took place in 1796 BC. However, the correlationof Ogyges with Saturn, the Titans and the geological events of Thessaly suggests thatthe namesake flood should have probably taken place in a very old age, mostprobably between 14,500 and 12,500 BP. This variant, however, requires furthergeological research to be documented, too.Finally, the flood of Deucalion is related to three different benchmarks:a. To the Corinthian Gulf. This version has been fully documented byLykoussis and others, according to whom the gulf has repeatedly been transformedfrom a lake to a sea basin and vice versa during the Upper Pleistocene (126,000 to10,000 BP), which is due to the variation of global sea level and the small depth ofthe Strait of Rio – Antirio.The Corinthian gulf remained isolated from the Mediterranean Sea until 13,000 yearsBP. The latter date is the limit for lake subsidence and the establishment of seaconditions within. With the influx of sea water into the Gulf coastal areas flooded,including the region of the then Phocis, which is also correlated to the flood ofDeucalion. Deucalion survived thanks to the construction of a raft, which ran agroundon Mount Parnassus. In all likelihood, however, the geographical term "Parnassus" is not only linked with the namesake mountain, but with a broader region, whichincludes the mountain.b. To Thessaly. Concerning this version, Apollodorus writes that the flood ofDeucalion occurred when the mountains of Thessaly separated, which probably tookplace between 14,500 and 12,500 BP. In this period significant climatic andgeological upheavals have been noted around the globe. If drilling takes place inThessaly, it will be possible to prove if one or more floods have really occurred in theregion. The drilling cores can be dated.Moreover, on the relationship of the flood of Deucalion with Thessaly and Parnassus,Paulus Orosius, Latin author of the 5th century AD, writes that this cataclysm tookplace 810 years before the creation of Rome (which occurred in year 753 AD), whenAmphictyon was King of Athens, the third one after Cecrops. During the years of hisreign, flood waters inundated most of the peoples of Thessaly and only a fewsurvived, resorting to mountains and especially Parnassus, whose region was thenunder the reign of Deucalion who, after receiving by boats those who fled to him,took care of them and fed them on the twin peaks of Parnassus. Because of this fact, itis widely spread that the human race was re-created by him.However, this version needs further scientific investigation as well.c. The Parian chronicle, on the other hand, without associating the flood ofDeucalion with a specific region, considers it of a much later era. Specifically, it saysthat the flood of Deucalion took place 1,265 years before the writing of the Chronicle.Since this Chronicle was written in the year 264 / 3 BC, during the reign of theAthenian archon Diognitos, the flood must have occurred in the year 1529 / 8 BC.There is always a possibility, however, that the flood mentioned in the Parianchronicle is a local flood of a later date in the 2nd millennium BC, which has beenpreserved with the same name and which should be confirmed by geological researchin the area of Attica-Boeotia.In conclusion, it is concluded that all three cataclysms of the Greek tradition, ofDardanus, Ogyges and Deucalion, are related with geological phenomena of thewider Aegean region, which occurred during the last melting of glaciers and the greatflood caused, among 14,500 and 12,500 years BP, therefore before the time of theYounger Dryas (12,500 – 11,400 BP), i.e. the last of the three cold periods (Oldest, Older and Younger Dryas), which periodically interrupted the warming trend, whichhad already started in 18,000 BP.Subsequently, investigation was focused on the following labours of Hercules, whichpresent a geo-mythological interest:a. The controversy between Hercules and Achelous: The struggle of Herculeswith Achelous corresponds to the diversion and settlement of the river rushing like abull. His serpentine body represents the meanders he forms, and the horn cut out byHercules is the "alignment" and deviation of a meander which, when cut off from theflow of the river, is offered as a fertile land for crops. The new land, drained by thewaters of the river, is really the horn of Amalthea, i.e. the horn of plenty.With the God - River Achelous is also linked the legend of the Echinades, which hasa geo-mythological importance. According to the Latin poet Ovid (Metamorphoses,VIII, f573 - 591), the Echinades were five Naiads, nymphs who lived on both sides ofthe river. They used to bring sacrifices to all the gods, except from Achelous. Becauseof this, he got angry and flew the Echinades into the sea, turning them into islands.This legendary event conceals a geologic event. It is established that 18,000 years agothe islands Echinades were an extension of the land of Aitoloakarnania. The sea level,thus, gradually increased and conquered the land, leaving only hills protruding. Thisprocess began 16,000-18,000 years ago. Again the myth proves to be true.b. The myth of Hercules and Lichas: Hercules, because of the intolerable paincaused by the robe Lichas produced to him at the behest of Deianeira, grabbed Lichasand hurled it towards the sea, probably to the northern Euboean Gulf. Pieces ofLichas formed the islands called Lichades, and the mountain above the promontorywas named Lichas. In this case, too, a geological event which had happened in thenorthern Euboean Gulf before thousands of years and in each case between 18,000and 6,000 BP, was credited to the hero Hercules.Lichades are volcanic islands. The emergence of the islands may of course beconnected with the lowering or rising of the waters because of climatic-eustaticmovements of sea level, but also with the rise and fall of the waters of an ancient lakethat existed 9,000 years ago in the region, where is currently located the northernEuboean Gulf. c. The myth of Hercules and Prometheus: Prometheus is a god of fire, as itresults from the theft and transfer of fire to humans. Besides, his name is correlated tothe Sanskrit word pramantha, meaning "reed, which produces fire" in the Indus Riverregion. However, the fact of placing a god of fire on a mountain could, according toE. and P. Barber, lead us to the thought of a volcano, because usually a volcano is amountain that has fire on top. The mountain upon which Prometheus was nailed,according to Aeschylus and Apollodorus, was the Caucasus of Scythia.Indeed, in the area indicated by the ancient Greeks as the site where Prometheus wasnailed, there is a volcano that could be Prometheus himself as a geologicalphenomenon which has crystallised in the myth. This volcano is Elbrus, which standsover 5,400 meters, belongs to the Caucasus Mountains and is adjacent to the easternside of the Black Sea. Recent dating of Elbrus eruptions offer a possible timetable ofthe initial eruptions that led to the tremendous reputation of this mountain. A series oferuptions took place between the years 5,500 – 5,200 BC, a second between the years3,300 – 2,600 BC and a third between the years 1 - 100 AD. So probably the secondseries of volcanic eruptions of Elbrus, which was the longest, spurred the creation ofthe myth of Prometheus, who in the Caucasus region has the like in the myth of thegod Loki, in Norse mythology.If, then, Prometheus was a volcano, what could exactly be the eagle, which wouldflow over Prometheus and eat his liver? The huge wings of the eagle could be animage of the ash cloud getting out of the volcano and ejected skyward. This mayperhaps seem excessive, but we must remember how common it is in several nationsto correlate major weather phenomena with giant bird wings, like the Thunderbird,the bird of thunder, in America.d. The myth of Hydra: Hercules, when trying to kill the Hydra, began by cuttingone by one the heads of the beast. Pinching a head, which represents an outflow ofwater in a karst point, was probably made possible by placing a rock at the pointwhere water vents to prevent its exit or cause it to follow another path. If one places arock in front of the mouth of a karst spring, the water vents from two or more otherplaces. This is the cause of the fact that in the place of a head cut by Hercules, twomore grew. e. The myth of Augeas: The technical works correlated to cleaning the dung ofAugeas probably did not take place in the area of Elis, but in the area of Tirynswhere, according to Mariolakos, are correlated to the construction of the Mycenaeandam of Tiryns. This dam is preserved in good condition, is directed north-south, andhas a length of 80-100 meters, a base width of 60 meters and preserved height of 8meters. The dating of its construction during the Late Helladic IIIB period (1,300-1,200 BC) coincides with the period of greatest prosperity of the Mycenaeancivilization. This technical achievement of the Mycenaeans may be compared to thedrainage works of great scale around the Lake Copais. However, we shall only beassured that this labour of Hercules took place in the area of Tiryns and not in thearea of the rivers Alpheus and Peneus if geo-archaeological research is performed inthe Western Peloponnese region and proves that the event mentioned in the myth hasnot happened there.f. The myth of the Stymphalian Birds: There is a possibility that this myth iscorrelated to water management works in Lake Stymphalia, which had taken place inprehistoric times. The range of lake waters varied depending on rainfall and runoffcontrol through natural or artificial sinks. The labour of Hercules is probablycorrelated to this project. Supporting this interpretation is the fact that water works ofcorresponding oldness and technique have equally been identified in the neighbouringto Stymphalos, Feneos valley, works which the ancients attributed to Hercules.g. The myth of Geryon: Why does Geryon have three heads and, also, why doeshe "scream", which is exactly what his name mean? "Geryon" is a geologicalphenomenon, so his heads can be understood as being one inside another, asdescribed by Philostratus. So, we talk of a concentric, multiple-ring-shaped cratershaped by fire, consisting of three concentric cycles. If the above is valid, then his"scream" is due to the fact that, in its concentric crater, the compressed gas (methane)found in the earth blasts rapidly from the bottom up, creating sound.h. The myth of Atlas: Atlas is, according to Herodotus, a very high mountain inNorth Africa, narrow and circular, which the natives called the column of the sky. Thefact of the transfer of support of the sky dome from Atlas to Hercules and vice versamight also have an astronomical significance. Specifically, on account of the phenomenon of equinox precession, a change in theposition of the earth's axis modifies also the poles of the celestial sphere, tracingcircles, the northern and southern one, whose completion requires 25,796 years.Today, the north pole of the sky is in a distance of one degree from the "alpha" star ofthe Little Bear. During the third millennium BC, the polar star was Thuban or "alpha"of the constellation of Draco. At the end of the eleventh millennium BC, the northpole of the sky was among the stars "Iota" and "Theta" of the constellation ofHercules. The transfer, therefore, of support of the sky from Atlas to Herculesprobably means this change in the north pole of the sky.Even the killing of the dragon that guarded the apples of the Hesperides by Herculesmay have astronomical significance. The north pole of the sky was during the thirdmillennium BC in the star Thuban or "alpha" of the constellation of Draco. Later, thenorth pole of the sky moved. This move resulted in the constellation of Draco as thenorth pole being sidelined, or, according to the mythical terminology, Draco being"killed". Since it was then considered that Draco (the dragon) was "killed" a greathero such as Hercules should have killed him. In other myths as dragon killers appearApollo, who killed the dragon Python in Parnassus, Jason, who killed the dragon inColchis with the help of Medea in order to grab the Golden Fleece, and finallyCadmus, who killed the dragon in Thebes and sowed his teeth, from which sproutedwickers.Another problem investigated is whether there was a cultural osmosis in the easternMediterranean. Some cases are indicative. It is worth mentioning the followingexamples:a. The battle of Zeus with Typhoeus / Typhon, which is very similar to the Hittite"Myth of Illuyankas", where the dragon Illuyankas fights against Teshub, the god ofweather.b. The labours of Ninurta: There are striking similarities between the labours ofthe Sumerian god Ninurta and the corresponding ones of Hercules, demonstrating themythological osmosis and the merge of elements of one culture into another.Ninurta's fame is based on a series of twelve "labours". He has defeated twelvemythical monsters, including a wild bull, a deer, a lion which was "the terror of thegods", and a seven-headed serpent. Ninurta is usually identified with the form of a god bearing a mace, bow and lion skin, depicted on Mesopotamian seals, and itsassociation with Hercules becomes inevitable.In the latter part of the paper we investigated the question whether Greek mythologyreflects geological and climatic changes that occurred in the broader Aegean area orelsewhere in the world.This question was answered by a combination of views expressed by Sakellariou(historian), Hourmouziadis (archaeologist), Mariolakos (geologist), Renfrew(archaeologist), Sampson (archaeologist), Cavalli-Sforza (geneticist), Triantafyllidis(geneticist) and Skoglund (biologist), and by investigation of linguistic,archaeological, geological, mythological and genetic data. The conclusion thatemerges is that probably the inhabitants of today's Greek territory who evolved withthis particular cultural identity easily recognized since the time of Homo Sapiens,50,000 BP, even if during the prehistoric times they were not aware of their commonorigin, they must have had continuous presence in the Aegean area, at least for thelast ten thousand years.Among other things, it should be noted that the paper deals with geo-mythologicalissues with a meticulous, where possible, use of ancient Greek and Latin sources.
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