Hepatitis B virus infection from an evolutionary point of view: How viral, host, and environmental factors shape genotypes and subgenotypes

Hepatitis B Virus and Hepatitis C Virus Infections in United States-Bound Refugees from Asia and Africa

“…31 More than 90% of CHB in Asia is caused by infections with genotypes B and C. 32 It has been suggested that genotype C may be the most virulent of the HBV genotypes. 33 Genotype C is associated with a delay in HBeAg seroconversion, ensuring perinatal transmission and progression to chronicity. 33 Individuals with genotype C have a higher risk of liver inflammation, cirrhosis, and liver cancer at a younger age than other genotypes, [34][35][36] though in one Taiwanese study, genotype B is associated with HCC in younger individuals.…”

“…33 Genotype C is associated with a delay in HBeAg seroconversion, ensuring perinatal transmission and progression to chronicity. 33 Individuals with genotype C have a higher risk of liver inflammation, cirrhosis, and liver cancer at a younger age than other genotypes, [34][35][36] though in one Taiwanese study, genotype B is associated with HCC in younger individuals. 37 The implications of the high prevalence of genotypes B and C in these populations may add to the burden of CHB within the United States.…”

Is Predominant Clonal Evolution a Common Evolutionary Adaptation to Parasitism in Pathogenic Parasitic Protozoa, Fungi, Bacteria, and Viruses?

“…One observes specificities for pathogenicity and geographical distribution. Recombinant forms are recorded (Araujo et al, 2011).…”

Hepatitis B Virus Genetic Diversity: Disease Pathogenesis

“…This genetic diversity of HBV has been associated with differences in clinical and virological characteristics, indicating that they may play a role in the virus-host relationship [48]. Genotypes may result from neutral evolutionary drift of the virus genome, from recombination, or as a consequence of a long-term adaptation of HBV to genetic determinants of specific host populations.…”