Heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) in carnivores kept in zoos in Texas, USA: risk perception, practices, and antigen detection

Abstract

Background Dirofilaria immitis is the causative agent of heartworm disease in wild and domestic canids, felids, and mustelids. Recent studies demonstrate that additional families in the order Carnivora are also susceptible to infection. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to (1) better understand current practices surrounding heartworm prevention and diagnostics in zoological facilities located in the state of Texas, USA, and (2) assess archival serum samples of carnivores kept in these facilities for the presence D. immitis antigen and/or antibody. Methods A questionnaire was completed by veterinarians or veterinary technicians representing 10 zoological facilities across Texas. This questionnaire was designed at the taxonomic family level, encompassing the 12 terrestrial carnivore families Ailuridae, Canidae, Eupleridae, Felidae, Herpestidae, Hyaenidae, Mephitidae, Mustelidae, Prionodontidae, Procyonidae, Ursidae, and Viverridae. The second objective was achieved with the use of archival serum samples made available by six zoo facilities. Results Risk perception varied across facilities for every family, including among species belonging to Canidae. All facilities used monthly heartworm prevention in canids and felids, with more variation existing in the other families. The use of diagnostic testing and type and route of administration of preventive varied by facility, with oral ivermectin the most commonly used preventive. A total of 217 archival serum samples, belonging to 211 individual animals encompassing 11 families and 39 species, were tested with a commercial heartworm antigen ELISA test, pre- and post-immune-complex dissociation. A subset of samples was also assessed for the presence of feline anti-heartworm antibodies using a commercial ELISA test. Two animals, both of which were Asian small-clawed otters from the same facility, had antigen detected (0.95%). Conclusions This study demonstrates that while the zoo veterinary community is aware of the risk and health impact of heartworm disease in canids and felids, there is still a great deal of uncertainty regarding the risks and ideal strategies for prevention in other carnivore families. The low proportion of antigen detection may serve as a baseline for future prevalence studies across the southern United States, where there is an emerging concern of macrocyclic lactone resistance in heartworm. Graphical Abstract

Wildlife parasitology: sample collection and processing, diagnostic constraints, and methodological challenges in terrestrial carnivores

“…Blood samples are occasionally collected from wild carnivores housed in captivity for routine health checkups, e.g., for evidence of anemia, infection, or inflammation—via hematological parameters—and levels of electrolytes, as well as to assess organ function [ 90 ]. Samples collected for these purposes may also be used for parasite screening [ 91 ]. In the field, blood and serum samples can be collected from trapped wild animals.…”

Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria striata (Spirurida: Onchocercidae) detected in wild carnivores from Texas, United States

“…A variety of wild canids, such as coyotes, red foxes, and wolves, have been reported with infections ( Zinck et al, 2021 ; Sobotyk et al, 2022 ). In addition, D. immitis infections have also been described in captive and wild felids, mustelids, ursids, and even humans ( Crum et al, 1978 ; Papadopoulos et al, 2017 ; St Jean et al, 2022 ; Upton et al, 2023 ). Widely distributed across the United States, this parasite has been reported in all 50 states ( Nelson et al, 2005 ; Little et al, 2021 ).…”