Health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride in bottled water: a case study of Iran

Public health risks associated with drinking water consumption in the upper Awash River sub-basin, Ethiopia, sub-Saharan Africa

“…The specific case of Kazerun, Iran, highlights the HQ for nitrate among children, with the HI for all three contaminants surpassing 1 in 56 % of cases, indicating a serious risk [ 65 ]. Furthermore, the health risk assessment of nitrate in bottled water in Iran reveals HQ values exceeding unity in 10 % of samples for both infants and children, signaling potential adverse non-carcinogenic health effects upon consumption [ 66 ]. These collective findings underscore the nuanced challenges associated with nitrate contamination, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions and ongoing monitoring to mitigate health risks in diverse geographical contexts.…”

“…Türkiye's lentic ecosystem similarly identifies fluoride as a major health risk, particularly linked to daily water intake [ 71 ]. Kazerun, Iran, presents potential adverse health effects from fluoride intake, with HQ exceeding 1 across various age groups [ 66 ]. These findings collectively underscore the consistent health risks associated with fluoride exposure, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions.…”

Estimating human health risks associated with heavy metal exposure from bottled water using Monte Carlo simulation

“…The city latitude and longitude are 34°05′N and 51°30′E respectively. More than 80 % of Kashan's drinking water is supplied from underground resources [ 1 , 15 ]. In recent years, water shortages have become more frequent in Kashan and other cities in Iran as nearly 70 % of the Iranian land has an arid climate.…”

“…The utilization of bottled water has steadily risen over the last half century due to its ease of access, low price and low levels of impurities [ 1 , 2 ]. Basically, bottled water is a purchasable packaged water supplied from various resources such as spring, well or tap water [ 3 ].…”

“…However, they may not always be safe and their resources may be contaminated with various contaminants [ 4 , 5 ]. Many researchers have identified the presence of high levels of certain substances in the bottled water, especially those that are toxic, such as radionuclides and trace elements [ 1 , 2 , 6 ]. Trace elements can be divided into two groups, the first group comprised of elements such as cobalt, copper, iron, molybdenum, selenium and zinc, which are essential for human life as well as for the growth and reproduction of organisms [ 2 , 7 ].…”