Hate Crimes and Race-Based Trauma on Latinx Populations: A Critical Review of the Current Research

Abstract

Traditionally, the literature has sought to understand the impact of racial minority status and trauma as it relates to interpersonal violence, domestic violence, and sexual assault. What has not been as extensively reviewed and summarized is how racially or ethnically motivated hate crimes impact the mental health of minorities—particularly Latinx/Hispanic groups. This review aims to summarize the current body of literature on the intersection of race-motivated hate crime and trauma responses within Latinx community. To do so, the theoretical foundation for this inquiry will build from a race-based trauma perspective. Specifically, this review connects existing frameworks for race and trauma and integrates literature that examines Latinx or Hispanic populations that have experienced discrimination, bias, or hate crime as a result of their identity or perceived identity. The importance of situating bias or hate events within the trauma literature stems from a lack of overall formal evaluation of these events, and how these occurrences are historically overlooked as a traumatic stressor. The findings of this review suggest that (1) experiencing racially motivated victimization can cause adverse mental and physical health outcomes in Latinxs and (2) currently, there is only one study that has examined the impact of hate crime on Latinxs in the United States. This leaves the field with unanswered questions about the impact of hate crime victimization among Latinxs, which is an ever-growing area in need of attention.

Discrimination, Emotions, and Identity: Unpacking Latinx Pathways to Crime

“…Because Latinx populations have unique ethnic-racial experiences, it is increasingly important to understand how these experiences shape their resilience against or propensity toward criminal offending. While Latinx populations have become increasingly targeted and ensnared through crimmigration policies (Provine, 2013), they also experience everyday prejudices based on perceived immigration status and English language skills (Lockwood & Cuevas, 2020;Stein et al, 2019). These additional layers of discrimination, perpetuated by both individuals and by the criminal justice system, create an ethnically unique experience that may account for the results found here.…”

“…However, Latinx Americans face additional ethnic-racial stressors, including the implementation of immigration policies, that uniquely strain relations between Latinx communities and law enforcement (Becerra et al, 2017;Quiroga et al, 2014). As immigration policies have become increasingly publicized and enforced, Latinx populations have begun to report increased hate crime victimization and ethnic-racial discrimination (Becerra et al, 2017;Lockwood & Cuevas, 2020;Quiroga et al, 2014), including discrimination experiences based on skin tone, perceived immigration status, and language fluency (Lockwood & Cuevas, 2020;Stein et al, 2019).…”

Identity‐based hate and violence as trauma: Current research, clinical implications, and advocacy in a globally connected world

“…Existing research suggests that hate‐based violence is often traumatic for the survivor, the survivor's community, and society at large, as evidenced by emotional, behavioral, and physical responses (Sugarman et al., 2018). When individuals experience chronic or profound psychological distress as a result of any form of hate, mental and physical symptoms may emerge (Carter, 2007), such as symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and poor cardiovascular health (Gone et al., 2019; Lockwood & Cuevas, 2020; Sugarman et al., 2018). However, systematic research on the traumatic impact of hate‐based violence is still very limited (Dzelme, 2008).…”

Assessing attitudes about hate: Further validation of the hate crime beliefs scale

“…Hate or bias crimes stem from prejudice against social groups or members of social groups and result in victimization of persons or groups and/or their property (Federal Bureau of Investigation, n.d.). In addition to physical harm, hate crimes can involve intimidation and harassment (Lockwood & Cuevas, 2020). The social groups most often targeted are distinguished by race and ethnicity, gender, country of origin, religion, sexual orientation, and disability (Lockwood & Cuevas, 2020; U.S. Department of Justice, 2017).…”

“…In addition to physical harm, hate crimes can involve intimidation and harassment (Lockwood & Cuevas, 2020). The social groups most often targeted are distinguished by race and ethnicity, gender, country of origin, religion, sexual orientation, and disability (Lockwood & Cuevas, 2020; U.S. Department of Justice, 2017). In terms of race/ethnicity, Black individuals accounted for 48.5% of total hate crime victims in 2019 (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2020).…”