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Surfactants are an important class of industrial chemicals. Nowadays oleochemical surfactants such as alkyl polyglycosides (APGs) become increasingly important. This trend towards the utilization of renewable resources continues and consumers increasingly demand for environmentally friendly products. Consequently, research in microbial surfactants has drastically increased in the last years. While for mannosylerythritol lipids and sophorolipids established industrial processes exist, an implementation of other microbially derived surfactants has not yet been achieved. Amongst these biosurfactants, rhamnolipids synthesized by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and surfactin produced by Bacillus subtilis are so far the most analyzed biosurfactants due to their exceptional properties and the concomitant possible applications. In this review, a general overview is given regarding the current status of biosurfactants and benefits attributed to these molecules. Furthermore, the most recent research approaches for both rhamnolipids and surfactin are presented with respect to possible methods for industrial processes and the occurring drawbacks and limitations researchers have to address and overcome.
Surfactants are an important class of industrial chemicals. Nowadays oleochemical surfactants such as alkyl polyglycosides (APGs) become increasingly important. This trend towards the utilization of renewable resources continues and consumers increasingly demand for environmentally friendly products. Consequently, research in microbial surfactants has drastically increased in the last years. While for mannosylerythritol lipids and sophorolipids established industrial processes exist, an implementation of other microbially derived surfactants has not yet been achieved. Amongst these biosurfactants, rhamnolipids synthesized by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and surfactin produced by Bacillus subtilis are so far the most analyzed biosurfactants due to their exceptional properties and the concomitant possible applications. In this review, a general overview is given regarding the current status of biosurfactants and benefits attributed to these molecules. Furthermore, the most recent research approaches for both rhamnolipids and surfactin are presented with respect to possible methods for industrial processes and the occurring drawbacks and limitations researchers have to address and overcome.
A majority of the biotherapeutics industry today relies on the manufacturing of monoclonal antibodies from Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, yet challenges remain with maintaining consistent product quality from high‐producing cell lines. Previous studies report the impact of individual trace metal supplemental on CHO cells, and thus, the combinatorial effects of these metals could be leveraged to improve bioprocesses further. A three‐level factorial experimental design was performed in fed‐batch shake flasks to evaluate the impact of time wise addition of individual or combined trace metals (zinc and copper) on CHO cell culture performance. Correlations among each factor (experimental parameters) and response variables (changes in cell culture performance) were examined based on their significance and goodness of fit to a partial least square's regression model. The model indicated that zinc concentration and time of addition counter‐influence peak viable cell density and antibody production. Meanwhile, early copper supplementation influenced late‐stage ROS activity in a dose‐dependent manner likely by alleviating cellular oxidative stress. Regression coefficients indicated that combined metal addition had less significant impact on titer and specific productivity compared to zinc addition alone, although titer increased the most under combined metal addition. Glycan analysis showed that combined metal addition reduced galactosylation to a greater extent than single metals when supplemented during the early growth phase. A validation experiment was performed to confirm the validity of the regression model by testing an optimized setpoint of metal supplement time and concentration to improve protein productivity.
Cre1 is an important transcription factor that regulates carbon catabolite repression (CCR) and is widely conserved across fungi. This gene has been extensively studied in several Ascomycota species, whereas its role in gene expression regulation in the Basidiomycota remains poorly understood. Here, we identified and investigated the role of cre1 in Coprinopsis cinerea, a basidiomycete model mushroom that can efficiently degrade lignocellulosic plant wastes. We used a rapid and efficient gene deletion approach based on PCR-amplified split-marker DNA cassettes together with in-vitro assembled Cas9-guide RNA ribonucleoproteins (Cas9-RNPs) to generate C. cinerea cre1 gene deletion strains. Gene expression profiling of two independent C. cinerea cre1 mutants showed significant deregulation of carbohydrate metabolism, plant cell wall degrading enzymes (PCWDEs), plasma membrane transporter-related and several transcription factor encoding genes, among others. Our results support the notion that, similarly to reports in the ascomycetes, Cre1 of C. cinerea orchestrates CCR through a combined regulation of diverse genes, including PCWDEs, transcription factors that positively regulate PCWDEs and membrane transporters which could import simple sugars that can induce the expression of PWCDEs. Somewhat paradoxically, though in accordance with other Agaricomycetes, genes related to lignin degradation were mostly downregulated in cre1 mutants, indicating they fall under different regulation than other PCWDEs. The gene deletion approach and the data presented in this paper expand our knowledge of CCR in the Basidiomycota and provide functional hypotheses on genes related to plant biomass degradation.
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