Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism

Abstract

Abstract-Western psychotherapy and indigenous shamanic healing systems have both used psychoactive drugs or plants for healing and obtaining knowledge (called "diagnosis" or "divination" respectively). While there are superficial similarities between psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy and shamanic healing with hallucinogenic plants, there are profound differences in the underlying worldview and conceptions of reality. Four paradigms are reviewed: (1) psychedelic psychotherapy within the standard Western paradigm-here the drug is used to amplify and intensify the processes of internal self-analysis and self-understanding; (2) shamanic rituals of healing and divination, which involve primarily the shaman or healer taking the medicine in order to be able to "see" the causes of illness and know what kind of remedy to apply; (3) syncretic folk religious ceremonies, in which the focus seems to be a kind of community bonding and celebratory worship; and (4) the "hybrid shamanic therapeutic rituals," which incorporate some features of the first two traditions. There are two points in which the worldview of the shamanic and hybrid shamanic ceremonies differs radically from the accepted Western worldview: (1) the belief and assumption (really, perception) that there are multiple realities ("worlds") that can be explored in expanded states of consciousness; and (2) the belief that "spirits," the beings one encounters in dreams and visions, are just as real as the physical organism. Keywords-hallucinogens, psychedelics, psychotherapy, shamanism, states of consciousnessBy way of introducing a comparative overview of the role of psychoactive drugs in psychological healing practices, a brief personal note might be permitted. As a psychologist, I have been involved in the field of consciousness studies, including altered states induced by drugs, plants and other means, for over 35 years. In the 1960s I worked at Harvard University with Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert, doing research on the possible therapeutic applications of psychedelic drugs, such as LSD and psilocybin (Leary, Metzner & Alpert 1964). During the 1970s the focus of my work shifted to the exploration of nondrug methods for the transformation of consciousness, such as those found in Eastern and Western traditions of yoga, meditation and alchemy (Metzner 1971). I also studied intensively the newer psychotherapeutic methods, many deriving from the work of pioneers such as Wilhelm Reich, that involve deep altered states induced by breathwork and bodywork. During the 1980s I came into contact with the work of Michael Harner , 1973), Joan Halifax (1982), Peter Furst (1976, 1972, Terence and Dennis McKenna (1975) and others, who have studied shamanic teachings and practices around the globe. These shamanic traditions involve non-ordinary states of consciousness induced by a variety of methods including ingesting hallucinogenic plants, but also drumming, fasting, wilderness vision questing, use of sweat

The Consumption of Psychoactive Plants in Ancient Global and Anatolian Cultures During Religious Rituals: The Roots of the Eruption of Mythological Figures and Common Symbols in Religions and Myths

“…During the last decades, accumulating archeological and anthropological evidence has rendered it clear that many ancient religious rituals had some other spiritual aspects related to psychoactive plants which were consumed during those rites, other than the known classical features of these rituals; psychoactive plants, which induce a certain form of altered states of consciousness (H-ASC) have been used for various spiritual purposes (Lewis-Williams, 1988, 2005Febregas, 2010;JeanFranchois, 2012;Bravo, 1989;Harner, 1973;Stafford, 1978;Metzner, 1998Metzner, , 2002Sayin, 2012a;Popik, 1995;Sheppard, 1998;Ruck, 2006Ruck, , 2009Akers, 2011;Merlin, 2003;Miller, 2013). Most of the shamanic and pagan cultures used those plants for different intentions such as:…”

A Comparative Review of the Neuro-Psychopharmacology of Hallucinogen-Induced Altered States of Consciousness: The Uniqueness of Some Hallucinogens

“…LSD and ibogaine have some unique effects which are not reported by other hallucinogenic drugs on the human consciousness, as well (Popik, 1995;1998). For instance, terminal cancer patients who were given LSD and compared its pain-reducing effect to that of morphine, said that with the psychedelic they still felt the pain but it wasn't as painful anymore; and there were many other more differentiated experiences that occupied their attention (Metzner, 1989).…”

“…Similar autopsychoanalysis phenomenon, can also be observed, -to some degree-, under the effects LSD, MDMA, psilocybin and DMT (ayahuasca). Ibogaine was also reported to be a very powerful aphrodisiac, while males and females in Gabon, may engage in a ritualistic sexual activity that may last from 6 to 17 hours under the effect of Ibogaine in their subcultures or in the practices of Bwiti cult (Popik, 1995;1998). Ibogaine has been used in shamanic initiation rituals of the shaman candidates to transcend temporal-spatial dimensions and "to contact the souls of the ancestors", for philosophical and personal development purposes in the subcultures in Gabon for centuries.…”

“…While the debate about the terminology still continues in many scientific circles, it is not quite established whether these natural or synthetic chemicals are really 'manifesting and expanding mind and human psyche' or not. However, it is obvious that hallucinogens affect conscious states (Hintzen, 2010;Austin, 1999;Siegel, 1992;Shulgin, 1991Shulgin, -1997Tart, 1990;Stevens, 1988;Lee, 1985;Stafford, 1978); EEG (Brimblecombe, 1973;Fried, 1977;Shagas, 1966;Brazier, 1964), human psychology and behavior (Hintzen, 2010;Passie, 2008;Fantegrossi, 2008;Popik, 1998;Henderson and Glass, 1994;Pletscher, 1993;Tart, 1990;Stafford, 1978), while there has been some attempts to use these psychedelic drugs in psychotherapy (Grof, 2001;Tart, 1990) and in the treatment of heroin addiction (Popik, 1995;1998).…”

“…Hallucinogen induced trance states and altered states of consciousness (H-ASC) have been practiced in different cultures and shamanist groups all over the world for centuries (Kripper, 2011;Metzner, 1998;Stafford, 1978). Most of the hallucinogenic drugs have been characterized as mimicking psychosis and they have been coined as 'psychotomimetics', however there is an increasing number of researchers who are using the term 'psychedelics', meaning 'mind manifesting and/or mind expanding' (Mithoefer, 2011;Gray, 2010;Hintzen, 2010;Passie, 2008;Metzner, 1971;1989;1999;Grof, 2001;Shulgin, 1991;Tart, 1990;Stafford, 1978).…”