People have interacted with computers from the start, but it took time for human-computer interaction (HCI) to become a recognized field of research. Related journals, conferences, and professional associations appeared in the 1970s and 1980s. HCI is in the curricula of research universities, primarily in computer science, yet it has not coalesced into a single discipline. Fields with researchers who identify with HCI include human factors and ergonomics, information systems, cognitive science, information science, organizational psychology, industrial engineering, and computer engineering.This article identifies historical, conceptual, and cultural distinctions among three major research threads. One thread extended human factors or engineering psychology to computing. Another developed when mainframes spawned business computing in the 1960s. The third, focused on individual use, arose with minicomputers and home computers and burgeoned with personal computing in the 1980s.Although they share some issues and methods, these research efforts have not converged. They emerged within different parent disciplines, at different times, and comprised different generations of researchers. Approaches, attitudes, and terminology differed. Two-computer operation and information systems management-embraced the journal-oriented scholarly tradition of the sciences; the thirdcomprising cognitive and computer scientistshas placed greater emphasis on conference publication. In addition, each thread initially emphasized a different aspect of computer use: mandatory hands-on use, hands-off managerial use, and discretionary hands-on use.Designing for a use that is a job requirement and designing for a use is discretionary can be very different activities. These often unvoiced distinctions contributed to the current state of HCI research and may shape its future.
Human-tool interaction at the dawn of computingHighly specialized tools were developed through the centuries to support carpenters, blacksmiths, and other artisans. However, efforts to apply science and engineering to improve the efficiency of work practices became prominent only about a century ago, when time-and-motion studies exploited inventions such as film and statistical analysis. Frederick Taylor's principles of scientific management 1 had limitations and were satirized in Charlie Chaplin's film Modern Times, but they were applied successfully to assembly line manufacturing and other work practices.World War I training requirements accelerated efficiency efforts in Europe and the US. World War II prompted intense interest in engineering psychology as a result of complex equipment used by soldiers, sailors, and pilots that tested human capabilities. Aircraft ergonomic design flaws-for example, in the ejection system's escape hatch-led to thousands of casualties. After the war, aviation psychologists created the Human Factors Society. Two legacies of World War II were awareness of the potential of computing and an enduring interest in behavioral requirements for design ...