GSR Measures of Cigarette Smokers’ Temporal Approach and Avoidance Gradients

Smith, Noel W.

doi:10.1007/bf03393593

Cited by 10 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 19 publications

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“…Brown (1948) found that the animals stopped nearer to the food pulled harder than those who were stopped farther away. This stronger motivation closer to the goal has been observed in several subsequent studies (e.g., Gjesme, 1974; Hearst, 1960, 1962; Losco & Epstein, 1977; Miller & Kraeling, 1952; Miller & Murray, 1952; Murray & Berkun, 1955; Rigby, 1954; Smith, 1965, 1969). How might this stronger motivation vary by regulatory focus?…”

Section: Approach and Avoidance Strength During Goal Attainment As A ...supporting

confidence: 79%

Approach and avoidance strength during goal attainment: Regulatory focus and the "goal looms larger" effect.

Förster¹,

Higgins²,

Idson³

1998

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

529

468

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Three studies tested the hypothesis that regulatory focus, both as a chronic person variable and as a manipulated situational variable, differentially affects the strength of participants' approach and avoidance strategic motivations as they get closer to the goal. In 2 studies, flexion and extension arm pressure were used as on-line measures of approach and avoidance intensity, respectively. As predicted, the approach gradient was steeper for participants with a promotion focus on aspirations and gains than for participants with a prevention focus on responsibilities and nonlosses, whereas the reverse was true for the avoidance gradient. In a third study, the same pattern of results was found on a persistence measure of motivational strength. Participants with a promotion focus worked longer on anagrams closer to the goal when they were approach means for goal attainment than when they were avoidance means, whereas the reverse was true for participants with a prevention focus.

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Section: Approach and Avoidance Strength During Goal Attainment As A ...supporting

confidence: 79%

Approach and avoidance strength during goal attainment: Regulatory focus and the "goal looms larger" effect.

Förster¹,

Higgins²,

Idson³

1998

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

529

468

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Brown (1948) found that the animals that stopped nearer to the food pulled harder than those who were stopped farther away. Further supporting this principle, stronger motivation closer to the goal has been observed in several other studies, with both animals and humans (e.g., Förster, Grant, Idson, & Higgins, 2001;Förster, Higgins, & Idson, 1998;Gjesme, 1974;Hearst, 1960Hearst, , 1962Losco & Epstein, 1977;Miller & Kraeling, 1952;Miller & Murray, 1952;Murray & Berkun, 1955;Rigby, 1954;Smith, 1965Smith, , 1969.…”

Section: Goal-priming Effects Show Gradients As a Function Of Distancsupporting

confidence: 72%

Seven Principles of Goal Activation: A Systematic Approach to Distinguishing Goal Priming From Priming of Non-Goal Constructs

Förster

Liberman

Friedman

2007

Pers Soc Psychol Rev

344

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Countless studies have recently purported to demonstrate effects of goal priming; however, it is difficult to muster unambiguous support for the claims of these studies because of the lack of clear criteria for determining whether goals, as opposed to alternative varieties of mental representations, have indeed been activated. Therefore, the authors offer theoretical guidelines that may help distinguish between semantic, procedural, and goal priming. Seven principles that are hallmarks of self-regulatory processes are proposed: Goal-priming effects (a) involve value, (b) involve postattainment decrements in motivation, (c) involve gradients as a function of distance to the goal, (d) are proportional to the product of expectancy and value, (e) involve inhibition of conflicting goals, (f) involve self-control, and (g) are moderated by equifinality and multifinality. How these principles might help distinguish between automatic activation of goals and priming effects that do not involve goals is discussed.

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“…gravitation), forces exerted by desired and avoided goals are inversely related to distance. Supporting goal gradients, enhanced motivation closer to the goal has been observed in several studies, with both animals and humans (e.g., Brown, 1948;Gjesme, 1974;Losco & Epstein, 1977;Miller & Kraeling, 1952;Miller & Murray, 1952;Murray & Berkun, 1955;Rigby, 1954;Smith, 1965).…”

mentioning

confidence: 91%

Expectancy, Value and Psychological Distance: A New Look at Goal Gradients

Liberman¹,

Förster²

2008

Social Cognition

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Goal gradients refer to the increase in motivation as a function of goal proximity. We propose that motivation does not always increase closer to the goal, and that in order to predict the shape and steepness of goal gradients one needs to look at how distance affects the two components of motivation-expectancy and value. Furthermore, we distinguish between four aspects of expectancy (probability, difficulty, sufficiency, necessity) and two types of value (value related to high level construal, value related to low level construal), each of which has a unique distance-related dynamics. It is proposed that motivational gradients are determined by the effect that distance has on each of these components. our study demonstrated gradients of motivation, sufficiency and necessity, but not difficulty. We discuss whether avoidance gradients would be necessarily steeper than approach gradients, as is postulated by Miller's (1944) conflict models. We also suggest that in some situations (e.g., when gradients reflect necessity) gradients would be moderated by regulatory focus (e.g., would be steeper in a prevention focus than in a promotion focus, Higgins, 1998).It is accepted as a maxim in psychology that goals loom larger as one gets closer to them in time. Students study harder for an exam as it gets closer, rats pull harder the closer they get to the reinforcement (Brown, 1948), people that escape a fire first run faster than later on. The notion that motivation increases with goal proximity dates back to Miller (1944Miller ( , 1959 and is based on Hull's (1943) theory of motivation. In this theory, motivation is the product of habit and drive, where drive is equivalent to the extent of need (e.g., hunger, pain) and habit is the strength of association between action and outcome. Gradients (i.e., changes in motivation 516 liberMan and fÖrSter over distance to the goal) stem from changes over distance in habit, drive or both. Lewin (1935Lewin ( , 1951 also assumed that motivation increases closer to a goal. He conceptualized desired (and avoided) end states as forces that operate on individuals, and assumed that like physical forces (e.g. gravitation), forces exerted by desired and avoided goals are inversely related to distance. Supporting goal gradients, enhanced motivation closer to the goal has been observed in several studies, with both animals and humans (But is it always the case? Do people always feel increasingly enthusiastic as they approach a goal? Do we always feel more motivated as we get closer to writing a paper? Do students experience increased motivation when they sit down to do their homework? In the present paper we would like to look at goal gradients from the perspective of expectancy-value theories of motivation and suggest that motivation does not always increase closer to the goal. Rather, the effect of distance on motivation depends on its effects on expectancy and value, which are complex and multifaceted. We present an experiment, in which we measure motivation, expectancy and value at differe...

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GSR Measures of Cigarette Smokers’ Temporal Approach and Avoidance Gradients

Cited by 10 publications

References 19 publications

Approach and avoidance strength during goal attainment: Regulatory focus and the "goal looms larger" effect.

Approach and avoidance strength during goal attainment: Regulatory focus and the "goal looms larger" effect.

Seven Principles of Goal Activation: A Systematic Approach to Distinguishing Goal Priming From Priming of Non-Goal Constructs

Expectancy, Value and Psychological Distance: A New Look at Goal Gradients

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