Greenhouse gas emission of diets in the Netherlands and associations with food, energy and macronutrient intakes

Abstract

Objective: To evaluate the greenhouse gas emission (GHGE) of diets in Dutch girls, boys, women and men and to explore associations with diet composition. Design: Descriptive analyses for the total population as well as stratified for gender, age and dietary environmental load. Setting: The Netherlands. Subjects: Dutch children and adults aged 7-69 years (n 3818). Results: The GHGE of daily diets was on average 3·2 kg CO 2 -equivalents (CO 2 e) for girls, 3·6 kg CO 2 e for boys, 3·7 kg CO 2 e for women and 4·8 kg CO 2 e for men. Meat and cheese contributed about 40 % and drinks (including milk and alcoholic drinks) 20 % to daily GHGE. Considerable differences in environmental loads of diets existed within age and gender groups. Persons with higher-GHGE diets consumed more (in quantity of foods and especially drinks) than their counterparts of a similar sex and age with low-GHGE diets. Major differences between high-and low-GHGE diets were in meat, cheese and dairy consumption as well as in soft drinks (girls, boys and women) and alcoholic drinks (men). Of those, differences in meat consumption determined the differences in GHGE most. Diets with higher GHGE were associated with higher saturated fat intake and lower fibre intake Conclusions: GHGE of daily diets in the Netherlands is between 3 and 5 kg CO 2 e, with considerable differences between individuals. Meat, dairy and drinks contribute most to GHGE. The insights of the study may be used in developing (age-and gender-specific) food-based dietary guidelines that take into account both health and sustainability aspects.

Adherence to dietary recommendations for Swedish adults across categories of greenhouse gas emissions from food

“…In contrast, we also show that participants with the largest carbon footprint have an intake of added sugar that is more in line with recommendations. Our finding that the more climate-friendly diet includes more added sugar than the less climatefriendly diet agrees with other studies on the intakes of mono-and disaccharides (8) , total sugars (9) and free sugars (10) . We have not studied which food items the added sugar comes from in the lowest and highest GHGE groups; however, among all participants in the Swedish National Dietary Survey, the main sources of added sugar were sweetened drinks, buns, cookies, cakes, sweets and chocolate (7) .…”

“…Temme et al (8) and Scarborough et al (9) found that people with low diet-related GHGE had lower intakes of total fat, SFA and protein, as well as higher intakes of carbohydrates and dietary fibre, compared with people with high GHGE. They reported that the intakes of mono-and disaccharides (8) and total sugars (9) were higher in the group with low compared with high GHGE from food. Vieux et al (10) found that those with the lowest emissions had a higher consumption of free sugars, defined as added sugars and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups and fruit juices.…”

“…Legumes (beans, peas, lentils), whole grains, nuts and seeds, as well as fortified plant-based alternatives to dairy, are examples of sources of protein and micronutrients with small carbon footprints (6) . Few studies have examined the carbon footprint and intakes of nutrients from self-selected diets (8)(9)(10)(11) . Temme et al (8) and Scarborough et al (9) found that people with low diet-related GHGE had lower intakes of total fat, SFA and protein, as well as higher intakes of carbohydrates and dietary fibre, compared with people with high GHGE.…”

“…Few studies have examined the carbon footprint and intakes of nutrients from self-selected diets (8)(9)(10)(11) . Temme et al (8) and Scarborough et al (9) found that people with low diet-related GHGE had lower intakes of total fat, SFA and protein, as well as higher intakes of carbohydrates and dietary fibre, compared with people with high GHGE. They reported that the intakes of mono-and disaccharides (8) and total sugars (9) were higher in the group with low compared with high GHGE from food.…”

Improving diet sustainability through evolution of food choices: review of epidemiological studies on the environmental impact of diets

“…The strategy of meat substitution has thus been investigated by various authors, but the hypothetical diet scenarios designed were not representative of actual food consumption 5 , 9 , 15 , 16 , 54 . The 5 studies that modeled substitution strategies starting from existing diets are summarized in Table 1 42–45 , 51 and reviewed below. …”