Grassland Evolution in Europe

Abstract

Summary This discussion deals primarily with the European secondary grassland, especially meadows and pastures. The principal constituents of this vegetation are about 20 species. Particular attention is paid to its evolution under the influence of man. In addition to the natives (members of natural vegetation cover) there are several species or races which are restricted to man‐made habitats. It is suggested that these latter are not native to the area of present distribution, but have immigrated under differentiation from abroad (the minor part) or evolved in situ (the major part). The significance of hybridization and introgression is stressed. It is contended that grassland evolution is still in progress, an important factor being the close interaction between cultivated grasses and their wild relatives in extra‐Mediterranean Europe, the center of diversity and origin of meadow and pasture grasses.

Biosystematics of the Muellerianella complex (Homoptera, Delphacidae): host‐plants, habitats and phenology

“…However, the overlapping ecological requirements of the hostplants lead t o local mixtures of the Muellerianella species. It seems likely that the ecological isolation between M. fairmairei and M.6revipennis broke down after the development of grasslands which started a few thousand years ago (Ellenberg, 1963;Scholz, 1975). Since these grasslands are manmade (Ellenberg, 1963), and M.fairmairei is almost completely restricted to such habitats, the present syntopic occurrence of these species is presumably largely anthropogenic.…”

Geography of grassland ecosystems

“…Weber (1891) and Scholz (1975) preferred the term secondary grassland for meadows and pastures to distinguish them from primary or natural grasslands. Sward, swale, and grass heath are occasionally but restrictively used.…”

“…According to Scholz (1975), the history of the European grassland in regions with cool-temperate climate dates back only a few thousand years. Grasslands expanded as people destroyed forests.…”

“…In contrast, the primary grasslands developed during the Miocene to Pleistocene periods in close interaction with the climate and the ungulates, and now these occur in Europe outside the wooded and secondary grassland area (Barnard and Frankel, 1966). Scholz (1975) argues that for the most part the European secondary grassland has been built up by native species such as Agrostis gigantea, A. tenuis, Festuca arundinacea, F. rubra, Hordeum secalinum, and Cynosurus cristatus, while others have immigrated from abroad or evolved in situ from invaded or immigrated progenitors through cultural impact. Species such as Phleum pratense, P. bertolinii, Alopecurus pratensis, A. bulbosus, A. macrostachys, Holcus lanatus, and Poa trivialis seem to be nonindigenous and may have come from the Mediterranean and neighbouring countries.…”

“…Meadows and pastures have their best development in the summergreen deciduous forest region with high summer rainfall and mild winters (Scholz, 1975). It is believed that the primary stands of plants in these habitats are situated on the margins of woods, forests, rivers, bogs, and marshy lands near seashore or on high mountains (Krause, 1893;Hartley and Williams, 1956).…”