Graphene: Insights on Biological, Radiochemical and Ecotoxicological Aspects

Abstract

Graphene, including graphene quantum dots, its oxide and unoxidized forms (pure graphene) have several properties, like fluorescence, electrical conductivity, theoretical surface area, low toxicity, and high biocompatibility. In this study, we evaluated genotoxicity (in silico analysis using the functional density theory-FDT), cytotoxicity (human glioblastoma cell line), in vivo pharmacokinetics, in vivo impact on microcirculation and cell internalization assay. It was also radiolabeled with lutetium 177 (177Lu), a beta emitter radioisotope to explore its therapeutic use as nanodrug. Finally, the impact of its disposal in the environment was analyzed using ecotoxicological evaluation. FDT analysis demonstrated that graphene can construct covalent and non-covalent bonds with different nucleobases, and graphene oxide is responsible for generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), corroborating its genotoxicity. On the other hand, non-cytotoxic effect on glioblastoma cells could be demonstrated. The pharmacokinetics analysis showed high plasmatic concentration and clearance. Topical application of 0.1 and 1 mg/kg of graphene nanoparticles on the hamster skinfold preparation did not show inflammatory effect. The cell internalization assay showed that 1-hour post contact with cells, graphene can cross the plasmatic membrane and accumulate in the cytoplasm. Radio labeling with 177Lu is possible and its use as therapeutic nanosystem is viable. Finally, the ecotoxicity analysis showed that A. silina exposed to graphene showed pronounced uptake and absorption in the nauplii gut and formation of ROS. The data obtained showed that although being formed exclusively of carbon and carbon-oxygen, graphene and graphene oxide respectively generate somewhat contradictory results and more studies should be performed to certify the safety use of this nanoplatform.

Genotoxicity of Graphene-Based Materials

“…Two of the selected articles used in silico approaches to evaluate the potential genotoxicity of GBMs [ 103 , 104 ]. The model developed by Kong and colleagues [ 103 ] allowed them to find a relationship between the size of the GQDs and the DNA damaging mechanisms.…”

“…On the other hand, in silico analysis using the functional density theory demonstrated that unoxidized graphene is unable to generate ROS, but it could link with the DNA bases by covalent and non-covalent bonds. Conversely, GO induced ROS-mediated genotoxicity [ 104 ]. Interestingly, both studies agreed on a higher affinity of GBMs to interact with guanine than with the other DNA bases.…”

The Impact of Metal-Based Nanoparticles Produced by Different Types of Underwater Welding on Marine Microalgae

“…Culturing of the microalgae and toxicity test conditions were maintained in accordance with the guidance of OECD No.201 [ 29 ] with minor modifications as previously described [ 30 , 31 ]. Microalgae were cultured with Guillard’s f/2 medium [ 32 ].…”

Metal-Based Nanostructured Therapeutic Strategies for Glioblastoma Treatment—An Update

“…Alongside AuQDs, graphene quantum dots (GQDs) can be used for GBM therapy, as non-functionalized GQDs exhibit biocompatibility and low toxicity, while GQDs displaying light responsivity effectively target GBM cells and synergistically enhance the effectiveness of DOX [ 188 , 189 , 190 ]. GQDs placed on AuNPs may be used as sensing probes for the recognition of glioma cells due to their excellent selectivity and stability [ 191 ] ( Table 1 ).…”