Graphene in therapeutics delivery: Problems, solutions and future opportunities

Abstract

Graphene based nanomaterials are being used experimentally to deliver therapeutic agents to cells or tissues both in vitro and in vivo. However, substantial challenges remain before moving to safe and effective use in humans. In particular, it is recognised that graphene molecules undergo complex interactions with solutes, proteins or cellular systems within the body, and that these interactions impact significantly on the behaviour or toxicity of the molecule. Approaches to overcome these problems include modification of the graphene or its combination with other molecules to accentuate favourable characteristics or modify adverse interactions. This has led to an emerging role for graphene as one part of highly-tailored multifunctional delivery vehicles. This review examines the knowledge that underpins present approaches to exploit graphene in therapeutics delivery, discussing both favourable and unfavourable aspects of graphene behaviour in biological systems and how these may be modified; then considers the present place of the molecule and the challenges for its further development.

Graphene oxide induces cytotoxicity and oxidative stress in bluegill sunfish cells

“…GO is known to be toxic to bacteria (Liu et al, ), erythrocytes, fibroblasts, PC 12 cells (Liu et al, ), A549 cells (Chang et al, ), L929 cells (Cherian et al, ), Raw 264.7 cells (Zhao et al, ), HepG2 cells (Lammel, Boisseaux, Fernández‐Cruz, & Navas, ), PLHC1 cells (Lammel & Navas, ) and zebra fish (Chen et al, ). Although the GO was found to be toxic for the following models but still the information on the toxicity data remain fragmented and contradictory, which should be addressed particularly on non‐mammalian organisms (McCallion, Burthem, Rees‐Unwin, Golovanov, & Pluen, ; Yang, Li, Tan, Peng, & Liu, ). It is generally accepted that discrepancies exist in the sensitivity to different contaminants among different species and which may hold true for nanoparticles (NPs).…”

Noncovalent interactions between cisplatin and graphene prototypes

“…As a matter of a fact, on the experimental framework it has been shown that GO platelets can act as an effective medium for the transportation of aromatic environmental pollutants and elimination of organic matter and antibiotics in water solutions. Graphene‐based carriers have also emerged as optimal candidates in therapeutics delivery: they have served for the transportation of water soluble and insoluble drugs as well as for nucleic acids loading . An important issue to take into account about the use of graphene‐based materials as drug nano‐carriers is their Adsorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity (ADME/T) properties, which are particularly difficult to assess because of the high carbon content of biological systems.…”

The mechanisms of graphene-based materials-induced programmed cell death: a review of apoptosis, autophagy, and programmed necrosis

“…9,10 The widespread use of graphene materials has prompted concerns about the possible human health and environmental safety impacts of these materials. GBMs present in biomedical and non-biomedical products have shown potential toxicity to human beings, animals, and cells.…”