Graphene‐Based Smart Platforms for Combined Cancer Therapy

Abstract

The extensive research of graphene and its derivatives in biomedical applications during the past few years has witnessed its significance in the field of nanomedicine. Starting from simple drug delivery systems, the application of graphene and its derivatives has been extended to a versatile platform of multiple therapeutic modalities, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, magnetic hyperthermia therapy, and sonodynamic therapy. In addition to monotherapy, graphene-based materials are widely applied in combined therapies for enhanced anticancer activity and reduced side effects. In particular, graphene-based materials are often designed and fabricated as "smart" platforms for stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, whose therapeutic effects can be activated by the tumor microenvironment, such as acidic pH and elevated glutathione (termed as "endogenous stimuli"), or light, magnetic, or ultrasonic stimuli (termed as "exogenous stimuli"). Herein, the recent advances of smart graphene platforms for combined therapy applications are presented, starting with the principle for the design of graphene-based smart platforms in combined therapy applications. Next, recent advances of combined therapies contributed by graphene-based materials, including chemotherapy-based, photothermal-therapy-based, and ultrasound-therapy-based synergistic therapy, are outlined. In addition, current challenges and future prospects regarding this promising field are discussed.

Recent Advances in Carbon Nanomaterials for Cancer Phototherapy

“…It should be mentioned that despite the fact that they can provide better solubility and stabilization than a noncovalent strategy, covalent surface functionalization in many cases may result in the loss of their certain intrinsic properties (e.g., photothermal conversion capacities) . Delocalized π–π systems in carbon nanomaterials are largely responsible for the extraordinary electronic properties and strong interactions between low‐frequency photons and carbon nanomaterials ranging from infrared to terahertz frequencies, endowing them with excellent NIR‐mediated photothermal conversion capability. Covalent surface functionalization may damage such delocalized π–π networks of carbon nanomaterials, thus, it may result in the decrease or even loss of photothermal conversion capacities, seriously affecting actual phototherapy applications …”

Carbon Counter Electrodes in Dye‐Sensitized and Perovskite Solar Cells

“…According to the morphology, carbon materials can be classified as a carbon fiber (Cf), carbon sphere (Cs), CNTs, mesoporous carbon, graphene, etc. In addition, various carbon materials have been used in the fields of energy conversion and storage, electrocatalysis, medicine, delivery vehicles, and wastewater treatment, according to the specific features of each kind of carbon material . As pointed out in the introduction section, several kinds of carbon materials have been used as the CE in DSC.…”

“…In addition, various carbon materials have been used in the fields of energy conversion and storage, electrocatalysis, medicine, delivery vehicles, and wastewater treatment, according to the specific features of each kind of carbon material. [122][123][124][125][126] As pointed out in the introduction section, several kinds of carbon materials have been used as the CE in DSC. Carbon is considered to be the CE material with the most potential on account of the merits of its low cost, high catalytic activity, and good stability.…”

Long‐Circulating Drug‐Dye‐Based Micelles with Ultrahigh pH‐Sensitivity for Deep Tumor Penetration and Superior Chemo‐Photothermal Therapy

“…[12] Furthermore, by combining with PTT, the efficacy of chemotherapy with a low dose can be obviously enhanced. [13] This is especially effective for DNA damaging chemodrugs (e.g., doxorubicin (DOX)), because the NIR-generated hyperthermia can interfere with DNA repair. [14] Since it integrates two therapeutic methods on a single platform, the chemo-phototherapy shows a "1+1>2" effect to inhibit tumor growth by the synergistic enhancement interaction.…”