Graphene-based nanovehicles for photodynamic medical therapy

Abstract

Graphene and its derivatives such as graphene oxide (GO) have been widely explored as promising drug delivery vehicles for improved cancer treatment. In this review, we focus on their applications in photodynamic therapy. The large specific surface area of GO facilitates efficient loading of the photosensitizers and biological molecules via various surface functional groups. By incorporation of targeting ligands or activatable agents responsive to specific biological stimulations, smart nanovehicles are established, enabling tumor-triggering release or tumor-selective accumulation of photosensitizer for effective therapy with minimum side effects. Graphene-based nanosystems have been shown to improve the stability, bioavailability, and photodynamic efficiency of organic photosensitizer molecules. They have also been shown to behave as electron sinks for enhanced visible-light photodynamic activities. Owing to its intrinsic near infrared absorption properties, GO can be designed to combine both photodynamic and photothermal hyperthermia for optimum therapeutic efficiency. Critical issues and future aspects of photodynamic therapy research are addressed in this review.

GO/TiO2 Hybrid Nanoparticles as New Photosensitizers in Photodynamic Therapy of A375 Melanoma Cancer Cells

“…Moreover, when GO is co-loaded with a second anti-cancer agent, its anti-cancer properties might be improved (5). The mechanism of GOT action in photodynamic therapy approaches is through an increase in intracellular ROS and ultimately eliciting cell death and apoptosis (19). In line with these results, the current study reports that GOT inhibits growth and evokes cell death merely under visible light irradiation (Figures 1 and 2).…”

“…The TiO 2 could also have an effect on the treatment of melanoma, as Harada et al showed that TiO 2 NPs, under sonodynamic therapy, could have cytotoxic effects on melanoma C32 mice cancer cells via induction of apoptosis (18). However, TiO 2 itself, due to high level of energy gap band, cannot have an effective photocatalytic impact on the presence of visible light (19) and doping TiO 2 with another PSs is an effective way to increase photocatalytic effects of TiO 2 in the visible region. For example, a recent study showed that …”

“…Furthermore, GO, due to its better water dispersion and its oxygen content, is much better than graphene and other carbon-based NPs (14,21). Graphene oxide can load different kinds of drug molecules, because of its large number of residual carboxylic acid, epoxide groups, and hydroxide on its surface (19). Reaction between the carboxylic groups of GO and hydroxyl groups of TiO 2 forms the basis for the creation of the GOT (14).…”

Magnetic Nanoparticles in Cancer Theranostics

“…Owing to its intrinsic high optical absorption in the near-infrared region, functionalized graphene oxide can combine both photodynamic and photothermal hyperthermia for optimum therapeutic efficiency. 80 In a recent review article Li and co-workers 80 have reported the current progress in the photodynamic therapy via nanotechnology.…”

Functionalization of Graphene Oxide with Porphyrins: Synthetic Routes and Biological Applications

“…GBMs, porphyrins and related compounds (as phthalocyanines, chlorins, azide-substituted porphyrinoids) have been individually explored (through different synthetic methods and functionalization routes) for different medical cancer treatments, as extensively reviewed elsewhere. [181][182][183][184][185][186][187][188][189][190][191][192][193] However, both systems individually present some limitations, such as the low solubility of GO or the aggregation tendency of porphyrins in physiological medium, due to the presence of salts and to the nonspecific binding of proteins..…”