Graphene-based Nanomaterials in Fighting the Most Challenging Viruses and Immunogenic Disorders

Abstract

Viral diseases have long been among the biggest challenges for healthcare systems around the world. The recent Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is an example of how complicated the situation can get if we are not prepared to combat a viral outbreak in time, which brings up the need for quick and affordable biosensing platforms and vast knowledge of potential antiviral effects and drug/gene delivery opportunities. The same challenges have also existed for nonviral immunogenic disorders. Nanomedicine is considered a novel candidate for effectively overcoming these worldwide challenges. Among the versatile nanomaterials commonly used in biomedical applications, graphene has recently earned much attention thanks to its special and inspiring physicochemical properties, such as its large surface area, efficient thermal/electrical properties, carbon-based chemical purity with controllable biocompatibility, easy functionalization, capability of single-molecule detection, anticancer characteristics, 3D template feature in tissue engineering, and, in particular, antibacterial/antiviral activities. In this Review, the most important and challenging viruses of our era, such as human immunodeficiency virus, Ebola, SARS-CoV-2, norovirus, and hepatitis virus, and immunogenic disorders, such as asthma, Alzheimer’s disease, and Parkinson’s disease, in which graphene-based nanomaterials can effectively take part in the prevention, detection, treatment, medication, and health effect issues, have been covered and discussed.

Advances in Biologically Applicable Graphene-Based 2D Nanomaterials

“…Tabish and Narayan [ 87 ] overviewed strategies for fabrication of mitochondria-targeted GR, for targeted destruction of cancer cells, and discussed recent progress in the application of mitochondria-targeted GR in chemotherapy, PDT, PTT, and combination therapies. GR-based nanomaterials, showing potential to be also used in fighting the most challenging viruses and immunogenic disorders, were overviewed by Ebrahimi, et al [ 88 ], and the latest progress in the use of GR nanofilled composites in dental applications was presented by Alkatheeri [ 89 ]. Begum et al [ 90 ] discussed, in their review paper, 2D materials (GO, 2D transition metal dichalcogenides, 2D MXenes, and 2D heterostructure materials) suitable to be used as antimicrobial materials, including criteria for developing novel antimicrobial 2D and heterostructure materials, suitable to eliminate bacterial infections.…”

Nanomaterials for Photocatalytic Degradations of Analgesic, Mucolytic and Anti-Biotic/Viral/Inflammatory Drugs Widely Used in Controlling SARS-CoV-2

“…Nanotechnology-based photocatalysis is known as a green technology that has emerged as a viable option for degrading/removing/treating a variety of organic/inorganic contaminants, risks, and hazards such as industrial wastes [18], dye molecules [19], pesticides [20], poisons [21], crude oil stains [22], polyaromatic hydrocarbons [23], cancerous cells [24], bacteria [25], bacteria resistant to antibiotics [26], molds [27], viruses [28,29], parasitic organisms [30], and pharmaceutical wastes [31]. Semiconductors are always present in these compounds because of their potential uses in the conversion of solar energy [32][33][34].…”

An ultrasensitive electrochemical sensing platform based on silver nanoparticle-anchored 3D reduced graphene oxide for rifampicin detection

“…, for energy storage and electrochemical sensors). 18,19 Currently, reduced graphene oxide (rGO), synthesized from GO, is receiving growing attention due to its advantages of excellent electrical conductivity and numerous active sites. 20,21 The great surface area and abundant surface functional groups make rGO and its composites star materials for electrochemical sensors.…”

“…[15][16][17] Graphene oxide (GO), a two-dimensional graphene material, contains both sp 2 -hybridized and sp 3 -hybridized carbons, which make it an outstanding candidate in many applications (e.g., for energy storage and electrochemical sensors). 18,19 Currently, reduced graphene oxide (rGO), synthesized from GO, is receiving growing attention due to its advantages of excellent electrical conductivity and numerous active sites. 20,21 The great surface area and abundant surface functional groups make rGO and its composites star materials for electrochemical sensors.…”