Graphene and its Derivatives for Bone Tissue Engineering: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation of Graphene-Based Scaffolds, Membranes and Coatings

Abstract

Bone regeneration or replacement has been proved to be one of the most effective methods available for the treatment of bone defects caused by different musculoskeletal disorders. However, the great contradiction between the large demand for clinical therapies and the insufficiency and deficiency of natural bone grafts has led to an urgent need for the development of synthetic bone graft substitutes. Bone tissue engineering has shown great potential in the construction of desired bone grafts, despite the many challenges that remain to be faced before safe and reliable clinical applications can be achieved. Graphene, with outstanding physical, chemical and biological properties, is considered a highly promising material for ideal bone regeneration and has attracted broad attention. In this review, we provide an introduction to the properties of graphene and its derivatives. In addition, based on the analysis of bone regeneration processes, interesting findings of graphene-based materials in bone regenerative medicine are analyzed, with special emphasis on their applications as scaffolds, membranes, and coatings in bone tissue engineering. Finally, the advantages, challenges, and future prospects of their application in bone regenerative medicine are discussed.

Recent advances and challenges in graphene‐based nanocomposite scaffolds for tissue engineering application

“…Osteogenic differentiation is accelerated on graphene nanocomposite scaffolds due to the ability of graphene nanomaterials to the increase preconcentration of osteogenic inducer factors (β‐glycerophosphate and dexamethasone) via π – π stacking among the aromatic rings in the graphene and the biomolecules 115,174 . Additionally, graphene derivatives increase osseointegration and osteoconductivity by stimulating cellular osteogenic differentiation, as well as bone‐like apatite production and biomineralization on the surface of implants 110,175 . One of the main factors for mimicking the properties of articular cartilage superficial and deep zones is the lubrication feature that maintains low coefficients of friction of joints.…”

Graphene Oxide–Protein-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering: Recent Advances and Applications

“…It has already been demonstrated that nanomaterials such as GO and rGO enhance cellular behavior over various scaffolds in order to promote and sustain tissular regeneration [133]. Fibrin, a fibrous protein, was employed as a biopolymer for the development of a nanocomposite scaffold for bone tissue engineering [134].…”

Graphene for Antimicrobial and Coating Application

“…Functionalized graphene and its derivates have been also used in bone regeneration and tissue engineering. Graphene can be combined with natural and synthetic biomaterials to enhance the osteogenic potential and mechanical properties of tissue engineering scaffolds [ 83 , 84 , 85 ]. Scaffolds play a central role in tissue engineering as structural support for specific cells and provide the templates to guide new tissue growth and construction [ 84 ].…”