Google and advertising: digital capitalism in the context of Post-Fordism, the reification of language, and the rise of fake news

Abstract

Google's dominance over the web allows it to dictate various norms and practices that regulate the state of contemporary capitalism online. The way in which Google operates as a company and generates revenue is often sidelined in academic discussions regarding the cultural implications of how its search engine functions. Almost 90% of Google's revenue is derived from advertising, despite Larry Page and Sergey Brin's original academic paper regarding Google in which they argue that advertising produces mixed motives that make it an unfeasible way to fund search engines. This article outlines how Google's model of advertising reflects and encourages wider changes in capitalism as it shifts from its twentieth-century Fordist incarnation to contemporary Post-Fordist arrangements of labour. In doing so, this article analyses Google's two main advertising systems, AdWords and AdSense, and proposes that these financial models have significant effects upon online discourse. In discussing AdWords, this article details some of the tensions between the local and the global that develop when tracing flows of information and capital, specifically highlighting Google's impact on the decline of online language diversity. In outlining AdSense, this article demonstrates how Google's hegemonic control prescribes which parts of the web can be monetised and which remain unprofitable. In particular, in drawing from existing studies, evidence is provided that Google's AdSense programme, along with Google's relationship with Facebook, incentivised the rise of fake news in the 2016 US presidential election. This work builds on existing scholarship to demonstrate that Google's economic influence has varied and far-reaching effects in a number of contexts and is relevant to scholars in a range of disciplines. As such, this article is intended as a discursive introduction to the topic and does not require specific disciplinary background knowledge. In doing so, this article does not attempt to provide the final word on Google's relationship to digital capitalism, but rather, demonstrate the profitability of a Post-Fordist perspective, in order to enable a wider engagement with the issues identified.

The Dynamics of Mass Media Resistance toward Google

“…Approximately 64% of Google's revenue is associated with advertisements placed on its own products and services (Google Search, Gmail, and Google Earth) and the rest is from its cooperating partners (Chen et al, 2009). Hence, Google is more accurately referred to as an advertising company (Graham, 2017).…”

Fake news as a social phenomenon in the digital age: a sociological research agenda

“…These kinds of tools allow companies and other online agents to make profi t by strategically placing digital advertising. Consequentially, the business models used by technology companies have facilitated the development of online spaces that encourage visitors to click in order to generate advertising money (Graham, 2017). This has provoked a rush for engaged audiences and incentivised web publishers to deliberately post objectionable content that generates revenue.…”

“…By monetising web content, words become economic resources: keywords and expressions are transformed into commodities that are sold on a linguistic market. This gives rise to a form of linguistic capitalism that has contributed to the spread of fake news by incentivising the use of profitable formulations (Graham, 2017). The algorithms of search engines have infl uenced language use on the web and marked off a decline of online language diversity by prioritising the vocabularies with more economic value over others.…”

An Analysis of the Partnership between Retailers and Low-credibility News Publishers

“…Next, we turn to the low-credibility news publishers' perspective. These news publishers, much like other content providers, commonly rely on ad revenue to stay profitable (Tamibini, 2017;Graham, 2017). Such ad revenue depends on three types of actors: retailers that pay content providers for placing their ads on their webpages, ad firms (e.g.…”