Goals, Standards, and the Self: Reference Values Serving Different Functions

Abstract

We examine reference values used in self-regulation research and identify two functions they fulfill: a standard function and a goal function. The standard function occurs when a reference value represents a desired state for the self in the present whereas the goal function occurs when a reference value represents a desired state for the self in the future. We argue that different factors influence the emotional, motivational, and behavioral outcomes of these functions. The magnitude of any discrepancy with a “standard” is important, whereas for a “goal,” the rate of discrepancy reduction, relative to an “expected” rate, is important. A review of the empirical literature supports these propositions. Consequently, we propose that future research should in-corporate our distinction between these two functions.

“Can you see the real me?” A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development

“…Selfguides represent standards that people have regarding desired self-aspects, and provide goals toward which they strive (Boldero & Francis, 2002). Ideal self-guides specify self-aspects that an individual (or a significant other) would like to possess, whereas ought self-guides specify self-aspects that an individual (or a significant other) thinks he or she should possess.…”

How Do We Assign Punishment? The Impact of Minimal and Maximal Standards on the Evaluation of Deviants

“…Similarly, Boldero andFrancis (2002, see also Tenbrunsel, Wade-Benzoni, Messick, &Bazerman, 2000) distinguish between goals and standards. According to their perspective, evaluations with reference to standards lead to the assignment of valence according to the perceived discrepancy between actual state of affairs and the perceived standard.…”

Self-Lines: A New, Psychometrically Sound, ‘User-Friendly’ Idiographic Technique for Assessing Self-Discrepancies

“…Ozgul, Heubeck, Ward, & Wilkinson, 2003;Tangney, Niedenthal, Covert, & Barlow, 1998), the evidence to support this ideal/ought distinction is substantial (Boldero & Francis, 2002;Higgins, 1999). Research efforts in this field have generally now progressed to the second-and thirdgeneration questions (Zanna & Fazio, 1982): When, and how, are self-discrepancies related to these emotions?…”