Glucose-Responsive Microparticle-Loaded Dissolving Microneedles for Selective Delivery of Metformin: A Proof-of-Concept Study

Abstract

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder that is one of the most common health problems in the world, primarily type 2 DM (T2DM). Metformin (MTF), as the first-line treatment of DMT2, is effective in lowering glucose levels, but its oral administration causes problems, including gastrointestinal side effects, low bioavailability, and the risk of hypoglycemia. In this study, we formulated MTF into microparticles incorporating a glucose-responsive polymer (MP−MTF−GR), which could potentially increase the bioavailability and extend and control the release of MTF according to glucose levels. This system was delivered by dissolving microneedles (MP−MTF−GR−DMN), applied through the skin, thereby preventing gastrointestinal side effects of orally administered MTF. MP−MTF−GR was formulated using various concentrations of gelatin as a polymer combined with phenylboronic acid (PBA) as a glucose-responsive material. MP−MTF−GR was encapsulated in DMN using polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as DMN polymers. The physicochemical evaluation of MP−MTF−GR showed that MTF could be completely entrapped in MP with the percentage of MTF trapped increasing with increasing gelatin concentration without changing the chemical structure of MTF and producing stable MP. In addition, the results of the physicochemical evaluation of MP−MTF−GR−DMN showed that DMN had adequate mechanical strength properties and penetration ability and was stable to environmental changes. The results of the in vitro release and ex vivo permeation study on media with various concentrations of glucose showed that the release and permeation of MTF from the formula increased with increasing glucose levels in the media. The MP−MTF−GR−DMN formula successfully delivered MTF through the skin at 11.30 ± 0.29, 23.31 ± 1.64, 36.12 ± 3.77, and 53.09 ± 3.01 μg from PBS, PBS + glucose 1%, PBS + glucose 2%, and PBS + glucose 4%, respectively, at 24 h, which indicates glucose-responsive permeation and release behavior. The formula developed was also proven to be nontoxic based on hemolysis tests. Importantly, the in vivo study on the rat model showed that this combination approach could provide a better glucose reduction compared to other routes, reducing the blood glucose level to normal levels after 3 h and maintaining this level for 8 h. Furthermore, this approach did not change the skin moisture of the rats. This MP−MTF−GR−DMN is a promising alternative to MTF delivery to overcome MTF problems and increase the effectiveness of T2DM therapy.

Solid Dispersion Incorporated into Dissolving Microneedles for Improved Antifungal Activity of Amphotericin B: In Vivo Study in a Fungal Keratitis Model

“…Finally, DMN-SD-AMB was dried for 48 h at 37 °C. The dried DMN-SD-AMB was removed from the mold and then observed using a light microscope (Olympus CX23, Japan). , …”

“…The prepared polymer blank was poured into a rectangular mold and dried for 48 h at 37 °C. The resulting dried film was removed from the mold, and then, the volume and density of the film were calculated based on eqs and …”

“…Finally, the determination of the types of drug kinetics models in vitro such as the zero-order, first-order, Higuchi, Korsmeyer−Peppas, and Hixson−Crowell models was based on the relevant regression coefficient (R 2 ). 33 Each kinetic model equation has been attached based on Table S1. 34 2.10.…”

“…After that, 200 μL of the third mixture was taken and then poured into a silicon microneedle mold (number of needles 10 × 10 with a height of 700 μm) and centrifuged for 10 min at 4000 rpm as the first layer using a centrifuge (Oregon LC-04S, China). 33,35 The second layer mixture was prepared by making a PVA:PVP solution (ratio 20:25% w/w) in distilled water at 90 °C until homogeneous. The mixture for the second layer of DMN was put into the mold containing the first layer of mixture and centrifuged for 10 min at 2000 rpm.…”

“…Previous studies reported that microneedles made from the PVA−PVP polymer have the mechanical strength to penetrate to a depth of 200 μm. 33 These results indicated that all formulations were able to efficiently penetrate intraocularly into the stromal layer in the range of 74−574 μm. 60 The determination of the best formula for DMN-SD-AMB needs to be considered carefully based on the mechanical strength and penetration ability of each formula.…”