Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are large-scale eruptions of the solar coronal plasma and magnetic fields expelled into the solar wind. CMEs can create magnetic storms in the Earth's magnetosphere that are responsible for severe geomagnetic effects ranging from breakdown in radio communications to damage of sensitive electronics on satellites and even disrupting the power grid. Therefore it is imperative to obtain reliable long-term predictions of space weather events driven by CMEs.Current state-of-the-art modeling capabilities involve numerical simulations using coupled first-principles and/ or empirical models. A prominent example is the Space Weather Modeling Framework (SWMF) (Gombosi et al., 2021;Tóth et al., 2005Tóth et al., , 2012) that models domains from the upper solar chromosphere to the Earth's atmosphere and/or the outer heliosphere using efficient coupling between multiple models and is capable of full Sun-to-Earth simulations. Typically, as shown in Figure 1, the model chain consists of obtaining the background solar wind in Stage 1, generating and propagating a CME through the heliosphere to Earth in Stage 2, and finally calculating the magnetospheric impact via geospace models in Stage 3. Along the way, various observational data (in the blue boxes) are also available to calibrate or validate the model. The SWMF offers predictions for several macroscopic plasma quantities, including those that critically impact the magnetosphere and the resulting