Global material requirements for the energy transition. An exergy flow analysis of decarbonisation pathways

Valero, Alicia; Valero, Antonio; Calvo, Guiomar; Ortego, Abel; Ascaso, Sonia; Palacios, José-Luis

doi:10.1016/j.energy.2018.06.149

Cited by 87 publications

(41 citation statements)

References 29 publications

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“…Although recycling rates are low for most critical metals used in PV technologies 20,54 , two scenarios for secondary supply (recycling potential (RP)) are used in the analysis. The first assumes no recycling for metals used in the PV technologies (WOR scenario) and the second assumes recycling rate of 50% for all metals (WR scenario).…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The most relevant materials, among those used in PV solar technologies, in terms of energy, water, and CO 2 emissions are Al, Fe, and concrete, not because their energy intensities are expected to increase (as a result of decreasing ore grade or lower energy efficiency) but mainly due to the quantities used in these technologies. Several values for Al, steel, and concrete intensities of PV solar have been reported 20,70,71 . Minimum, maximum, and average Al intensity in PV is assumed 19 Mg/MW, 33 Mg/MW, and 26 Mg/MW, steel intensity is assumed 178 Mg/MW, 318 Mg/MW, and 251 Mg/MW, and concrete intensity is assumed 672 Mg/MW, 2846 Mg/MW, and 1823 Mg/MW based on values reported in 71 for average literature data.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Materials, energy, water, and emissions nexus impacts on the future contribution of PV solar technologies to global energy scenarios

Elshkaki

2019

Sci Rep

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PV technologies are increasingly making significant contribution to global energy generation (GEG), attributed to their high potential of increasing efficiency, cost reduction, and improving energy security. These technologies however rely on metals that are identified as critical due to risks associated with their supply, and other materials that require energy and water for their production. In this paper, a comprehensive assessment of required materials for PV technologies, an analysis of their materials inflows, outflows, and stocks, an estimate of their maximum contribution to global energy scenarios (GES), and an estimate of energy and water required for their material production and associated CO2 emissions under the nexus approach, have been carried out using a dynamic material flow-stock model. A total of 100 energy-material nexus scenarios, which combines 10 GES and 10 materials scenarios, have been analysed. Results indicate that although most GES are difficult to be realized under current PV technologies market share and condition; these technologies could make significant contribution to GEG in future. The three commercial thin-film PV technologies could produce between 3% and 22% of electricity generation in IEA-450 scenario. Energy required for PV materials production is expected to reach between 5.9% and 11.8% of electricity generated (EG) by PV solar and between 0.76% and 1.52% of total EG in IEA-450 scenario by 2050. CO2 emissions associated with material production are expected to be between 0.94% and 2.2% of total CO2 emissions in IEA-450 scenario by 2050.

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Materials, energy, water, and emissions nexus impacts on the future contribution of PV solar technologies to global energy scenarios

Elshkaki

2019

Sci Rep

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“…To retain the same units, we evaluated each metal demand in terms of its exergy replacement cost rather than in tonnage. However, tonnage was also assessed as explained in Valero et al [ 19 ].…”

Section: An Exergy Flow Analysis Of the Energy Transitionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Five elements experience at least a six-fold increase in demand in exergy replacement cost terms—cobalt, lithium, magnesium, titanium, and zinc. Further, the growth in phosphates and potassium demand both for fertilizers and bioenergy use is expected to double by 2050 [ 19 ]. Figure 1 shows that to approach a decarbonized economy by 2050, the replacement cost of the minerals used (9355 Mtoe) is greater than the energy provided by all fossil fuels and nuclear energy (6405 + 1789 Mtoe) and even by all renewable energies (6901 Mtoe).…”

Section: An Exergy Flow Analysis Of the Energy Transitionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Thermodynamic Rarity and Recyclability of Raw Materials in the Energy Transition: The Need for an In-Spiral Economy

Valero

2019

Entropy

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This paper presents a thermodynamic vision of the depletion of mineral resources. It demonstrates how raw materials can be better assessed using exergy, based on thermodynamic rarity, which considers scarcity in the crust and energy requirements for extracting and refining minerals. An exergy analysis of the energy transition reveals that, to approach a decarbonized economy by 2050, mineral exergy must be greater than that of fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and even all renewables. This is because clean technologies require huge amounts of many different raw materials. The rapid exhaustion of mines necessitates an increase in recycling and reuse, that is, a “circular economy”. As seen in the automobile industry, society is far removed from closing even the first cycle, and absolute circularity does not exist. The Second Law dictates that, in each cycle, some quantity and quality of materials is unavoidably lost (there are no circles, but spirals). For a rigorous recyclability analysis, we elaborate the exergy indicators to be used in the assessment of the true circularity of recycling processes. We aim to strive toward an advanced economy focused on separating techniques and promoting circularity audits, an economy that inspires new solutions: an in-spiral economy.

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Corrosion and degradation behavior of aluminum and copper refrigerant piping

Uchiyama

Uemura²,

Hiraoka

et al. 2022

Materials & Corrosion

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Many types of refrigerant piping use copper alloys because of such alloys' high workability, thermal conductivity, and weatherability. However, copper is the 25th most abundant element in Earth's crust (as indicated by its Clark number: a relatively low value, ca. 0.01). Therefore, there is concern about depletion, if emerging countries and new devices such as electric vehicles use large quantities of copper. Recently, we have focused on aluminum as a lightweight metal, which is 4th place in terms of Clark number (ca. 7.6). Refrigerant piping also uses aluminum in air conditioning equipment; thus, practical applications are available. Aluminum alloys used as material for piping also contain other elements such as manganese, silicon, magnesium, copper, and iron. Regarding practical use for pipework, long-term evaluation (more than 20 years) by corrosion is necessary. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the corrosion-resistant characteristics of various aluminum alloys by accelerated degradation tests with changing storage conditions, such as temperature and atmosphere. In general, the corrosion of the piping materials depends on the contact atmosphere and differs between inside (refrigerant) and outside (e.g., air) piping. Specifically, there are concerns about the acid of refrigerant oils (inside piping) and corrosion by the salts in seawater (outside piping). The results from immersion tests in refrigerant and cyclic corrosion tests (intermittent cycles between salt mist and drying) proved that aluminum alloys can be used for refrigerant piping in the same way as copper materials.

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Global material requirements for the energy transition. An exergy flow analysis of decarbonisation pathways

Cited by 87 publications

References 29 publications

Materials, energy, water, and emissions nexus impacts on the future contribution of PV solar technologies to global energy scenarios

Materials, energy, water, and emissions nexus impacts on the future contribution of PV solar technologies to global energy scenarios

Thermodynamic Rarity and Recyclability of Raw Materials in the Energy Transition: The Need for an In-Spiral Economy

Corrosion and degradation behavior of aluminum and copper refrigerant piping

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