Global emergence ofAlphavirusesthat cause arthritis in humans

Abstract

Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) may cause severe emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases, which pose a significant threat to human and animal health in the world today. These infectious diseases range from mild febrile illnesses, arthritis, and encephalitis to haemorrhagic fevers. It is postulated that certain environmental factors, vector competence, and host susceptibility have a major impact on the ecology of arboviral diseases. Presently, there is a great interest in the emergence of Alphaviruses because these viruses, including Chikungunya virus, O'nyong'nyong virus, Sindbis virus, Ross River virus, and Mayaro virus, have caused outbreaks in Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and America. Some of these viruses are more common in the tropics, whereas others are also found in temperate regions, but the actual factors driving Alphavirus emergence and re-emergence remain unresolved. Furthermore, little is known about the transmission dynamics, pathophysiology, genetic diversity, and evolution of circulating viral strains. In addition, the clinical presentation of Alphaviruses may be similar to other diseases such as dengue, malaria, and typhoid, hence leading to misdiagnosis. However, the typical presence of arthritis may distinguish between Alphaviruses and other differential diagnoses. The absence of validated diagnostic kits for Alphaviruses makes even routine surveillance less feasible. For that purpose, this review describes the occurrence, genetic diversity, clinical characteristics, and the mechanisms involving Alphaviruses causing arthritis in humans. This information may serve as a basis for better awareness and detection of Alphavirus-caused diseases during outbreaks and in establishing appropriate prevention and control measures.

Electrocardiography Abnormalities in Macaques after Infection with Encephalitic Alphaviruses

“…Equine encephalitis viruses (EEVs) constitute a subset of the alphavirus genus of Family Togaviridae. The alphaviruses are grouped into New World and Old World viruses, which generally correspond with groups of signs of clinical disease; New World alphaviruses are more likely to cause encephalitis while Old World viruses tend to cause arthralgia [1][2][3][4]. In the 1930s, these mosquito-borne viruses were among the first alphaviruses to be discovered, and both the United States and Soviet Union experimented with Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis (VEEV) as a potential biological warfare agent after it was realized that VEEV was highly infectious when aerosolized [5][6][7][8][9][10].…”

Electrocardiography Abnormalities in Macaques after Infection with Encephalitic Alphaviruses

“…Equine encephalitis viruses (EEVs) constitute a distinct portion of the alphavirus genus of Family Togaviridae. Alphaviruses are grouped into New World and Old World viruses, which generally correspond with signs of clinical disease; New World alphaviruses are more likely to cause encephalitis while Old World viruses tend to cause arthralgia [1][2][3][4]. These mosquito-borne viruses were the first alphaviruses to be isolated through the 1930s, and VEEV underwent research in later decades by the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a potential biological warfare agent after it was realized that VEEV was highly infectious when aerosolized [5][6][7][8][9][10].…”

A possible role for autoimmunity through molecular mimicry in alphavirus mediated arthritis

“…Human infections caused by the alphaviruses group share a common feature of the clinical picture of arthralgia and chronic arthritis that closely resembles rheumatoid arthritis 7,24,25 . Further, more severe and delayed recovery of alpha viral disease in patients with pre-existing arthritic conditions has been reported 26 .…”