Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and Their Impact on Foods: A Review

Abstract

While the risk from pathogenic microorganisms in foods has been recognized for hundreds of years, bacterial agents are generally implicated as the contaminants. Although many outbreaks of gastroenteritis caused by protozoan pathogens have occurred, it is only in the last 3 years that attention has focused on protozoan association with foodborne transmission. Recognized as waterborne parasites, Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora have now been associated with several foodborne outbreaks. The oocysts and cysts of these organisms can persist and survive for long periods of time both in water and on foods. While Cyclospora oocysts require a maturation period, Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts are immediately infectious upon excretion from the previous host. As a result, these parasites have emerged as public health risks and have become a concern to the food industry. More than 200 cases of foodborne giardiasis (seven outbreaks) were reported from 1979 to 1990. Four foodborne Cryptosporidium outbreaks (with a total of 252 cases) have been documented since 1993. Cyclospora caused a series of sporadic outbreaks of cyclosporasis throughout North America that have affected over 3,038 people since 1995. Control and prevention of protozoan foodborne disease depends upon our ability to prevent, remove, or kill protozoan contaminants. This review will address the biology, foodborne and waterborne transmission, survival, and methods for detection and control of Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora.

Climate variability and change in the United States: potential impacts on water- and foodborne diseases caused by microbiologic agents.

“…Vegetables and fruits eaten raw, some imported from other countries and others grown within the United States, have caused outbreaks of illness. Perhaps most dramatic were the cases of cyclosporiasis (89). Cyclospora is a protozoan species implicated as an etiologic agent of prolonged watery diarrhea, fatigue, and anorexia in humans (90).…”

“…This process is dependent on warm temperatures (122,132). Outbreaks in the United States associated with imported produce occurred in the late spring or early summer (89,91). In Peru, for example, the incidence of cyclosporosis shows marked seasonality, peaking in the summer (123).…”

Detection ofCryptosporidiumoocysts in green mussels (Perna viridis) from shell-fish markets of Thailand

“…Several epidemics of cryptosporidiosis associated to foodstuffs and water supplies have been reported. The potential for contamination with the transmissive stages of C. parvum is gaining increasing attention (Griffiths, 1998;Girdwood & Smith, 1999;Rose & Slifko, 1999;Robertson & Gjerde, 2000;Nichols & Smith, 2001). Coasts and rivers can be contaminated by Cryptosporidium oocysts if these water environments are polluted by anthropogenic and livestock fecal discharges (Fayer et al, 2003).…”

Transfer of Escherichia Coli to Lemons Slices and Ice during Handling

“…During food preparation, bacteria on hands can be transferred to raw foods from hands and indirectly from other surfaces (Montville, Chen & Schaffner, 2002). Hands can also be a source for contamination from food workers that may be ill by not have overt symptoms who shed pathogens (Rocourt & Cossart, 1997;Rose & Slifko, 1999). Numerous studies have examined the transfer of bacteria to food from food contact surfaces including stainless steel (Kusumaningrum, Riboldi, Hazelberger & Beumer, 2003;Moore, Sheldon & Jaykus, 2003;Rodriguez & McLandsborough, 2007;Kesiken, Todd & Ryser, 2008), fabrics (Marples & Towers, 1979;Sattar et al , 2001;Scott & Bloomfield, 1990), gloves (Legg, Khela, Madie, Fenwick, Quynh & Hedderley, 1999;Heal et al, 2003;Montville et al, 2001;Blom, Gozzard, Heal, Bowker, & Estela, 2002;Gill & Jones, 2002;Mackintosh & Hoffman, 1984;Patrick, Findon, & Miller, 1997;Scott & Bloomfield, 1990;Shale, Jacoby & Plaatjies, 2006) and hands (Scott & Bloomfield, 1990;Legg et al, 1999;Merry, Miller, Findon, Webster & Neff, 2001).…”

“…In these studies the pathogen was carried in water used to create the ice however, cross contamination due to handling food and ice is also a cause of foodborne illness (Fendler, Dolan & Williams, 1998;Montville, Chen & Schaffner, 2002). Bacteria can reside on hands (Rocourt & Cossart, 1997;Rose & Slifko, 1999) and stainless steel food contact surfaces (Kusumaningrum, Riboldi, Hazelberger & Beumer, 2003;Moore, Sheldon & Jaykus, 2003;Rodriguez & McLandsborough, 2007;Kesiken, Todd & Ryser, 2008) and transfer bacteria to food. In the current study an average of 19.5 % of the bacteria on hands were transferred to ice and 66.2% of bacteria on scoops were transferred to ice ( Table 2).…”