Geochemical Modeling Source Provenance, Public Health Exposure, and Evaluating Potentially Harmful Elements in Groundwater: Statistical and Human Health Risk Assessment (HHRA)

Abstract

Groundwater contamination by potentially harmful elements (PHEs) originating from the weathering of granitic and gneissic rock dissolution poses a public health concern worldwide. This study investigated physicochemical variables and PHEs in the groundwater system and mine water of the Adenzai flood plain region, in Pakistan, emphasizing the fate distribution, source provenance, chemical speciation, and health hazard using the human health risk assessment HHRA-model. The average concentrations of the PHEs, viz., Ni, Mn, Cr, Cu, Cd, Pb, Co, Fe, and Zn 0.23, were 0.27, 0.07, 0.30, 0.07, 0.06, 0.08, 0.68, and 0.23 mg/L, respectively. The average values of chemical species in the groundwater system, viz., H+, OH−, Ni2+, Mn2+, Mn3+, Cr3+, Cr6+, Cu+, Cu2+, Cd2+, Pb2+, Pb4+, Co2+, Co3+, Fe2+, Fe3+, and Zn2+, were 1.0 × 10−4 ± 1.0 × 10−6, 1.0 × 10−4 ± 9.0 × 10−7, 2.0 × 10−1 ± 1.0 × 10−3, 3.0 × 10−1 ± 1.0 × 10−3, 1.0 × 10−22 ± 1.0 × 10−23, 4.0 × 10−6 ± 2.0 × 10−6, 4.0 × 10−11 ± 2.0 × 10−11, 9.0 × 10−3 ± 1.0 × 10−2, 2.0 × 10−1 ± 2.0 × 10−3, 7.0 × 10−2 ± 6.0 × 10−2, 5.0 × 10−2 ± 5.0 × 10−2, 2.0 × 10−2 ± 1.5 × 10−2, 6.0 × 10−2 ± 4.0 × 10−2, 8.0 × 10−31 ± 6.0 × 10−31, 3.0 × 10−1 ± 2.0 × 10−4, 4.0 × 10−10 ± 3.0 × 10−10, and 2.0 × 10−1 ± 1.0 × 10−1. The mineral compositions of PHEs, viz. Ni, were bunsenite, Ni(OH)2, and trevorite; Mn viz., birnessite, bixbyite, hausmannite, manganite, manganosite, pyrolusite, and todorokite; Cr viz., chromite and eskolaite; Cu viz., CuCr2O4, cuprite, delafossite, ferrite-Cu, and tenorite; Cd viz., monteponite; Pb viz, crocoite, litharge, massicot, minium, plattnerite, Co viz., spinel-Co; Fe viz., goethite, hematite, magnetite, wustite, and ferrite-Zn; and Zn viz., zincite, and ZnCr2O4 demarcated undersaturation and supersaturation. However, EC, Ca2+, K+, Na+, HCO3−, Cr, Cd, Pb, Co, and Fe had exceeded the WHO guideline. The Nemerow’s pollution index (NPI) showed that EC, Ca2+, K+, Na+, HCO3−, Mn, Cd, Pb, Co, and Fe had worse water quality. Principal component analysis multilinear regression (PCAMLR) and cluster analysis (CA) revealed that 75% of the groundwater contamination originated from geogenic inputs and 18% mixed geogenic-anthropogenic and 7% anthropogenic sources. The HHRA-model suggested potential non-carcinogenic risks, except for Fe, and substantial carcinogenic risks for evaluated PHEs. The women and infants are extremely exposed to PHEs hazards. The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks in children, males, and females had exceeded their desired level. The HHRA values of PHEs exhibited the following increasing pattern: Co > Cu > Mn > Zn > Fe, and Cd > Pb > Ni > Cr. The higher THI values of PHEs in children and adults suggested that the groundwater consumption in the entire region is unfit for drinking, domestic, and agricultural purposes. Thus, all groundwater sources need immediate remedial measures to secure health safety and public health concerns.

Groundwater Quality, Health Risk Assessment, and Source Distribution of Heavy Metals Contamination around Chromite Mines: Application of GIS, Sustainable Groundwater Management, Geostatistics, PCAMLR, and PMF Receptor Model

“…The groundwater results of the present study for NPI were compared with the study conducted by Swati and Umesh. The results are consistent and result-oriented [60,107]. The percentage contributions of NPI for exceeded parameters EC, turbidity, PO 4 , and Cr were recorded up to 100%, 42%, 100%, and 100%, respectively.…”

“…The toxic effect and hazardous nature of HMs in groundwater ingestion are functions of their speciation rather than the total concentrations of toxic metals. The results of this study were compared with the findings of Rashid et al, 2022, which determined a consistent trend of groundwater saturation from surrounding chromite mines in the ultramafic terrain of the Malakand area [60].…”

“…The results of this study were compared with the findings of Rashid et al, 2021 and 2022, conducted in the neighboring water system of Mardan Basin and the floodplain area of River Swat. The results are consistent and accurate in explaining the environmental condition and parental rock interaction of bedrock materials within the aquifer [3,60]. Overall, the groundwater contamination in the ultramafic terrain of Malakand, Pakistan is further aggravated by chromite mining in the vicinity of groundwater in the mining region.…”

“…HMs are released into the groundwater system if the HM-retaining capacity of the soil subsurface decreases due to pH fluctuation [58,59]. Many areas of Pakistan are experiencing groundwater deterioration [3,60]. Therefore, effective groundwater management is essential to maintain the long-term survival of groundwater aquifers [61,62].…”

Non-Carcinogenic Health Risk Evaluation of Elevated Fluoride in Groundwater and Its Suitability Assessment for Drinking Purposes Based on Water Quality Index

“…Positive values represent that the water variable was significantly influenced by different processes, whereas negative values indicate that the saturation of the water chemistry was not affected. Thus, a Pearson correlation coefficient (r) significant pair at a 0.05 alpha level with 95% confidence was calculated [ 41 ]. In this work, Pearson correlation analysis was employed to determine the relationship between numerous water chemical characteristics.…”