Geochemical evidence for the manufacture, logistics and supply‐chain management of Emperor Qin Shihuang's Terracotta Army, China

Abstract

Non‐invasive materials characterisation of reconstructed statues of Emperor Qin Shihuang's Terracotta Army has revealed distinct micro‐geochemical patterning within the clay paste used in their manufacture. The significance of this is explored in terms of the production sequence, logistics and supply‐chain management involved in the construction of this enormous funerary assemblage. Of particular interest is a compositional distinction between figures marked with the names ‘Gong’ (宫) and ‘Xianyang’ (咸阳). These seem to represent the products of two workshops involved in the supply of ceramic objects for this ambitious, large‐scale building project undertaken by the Qin Empire during the third century bce.

Horses in Qin mortuary practice: new insights from Emperor Qin Shihuang's mausoleum

“…The construction of Qin Shihuang's mausoleum was an unprecedented project. Standing at the apex of the Qin mortuary system, its organised construction, ritual furnishing and efficient logistics are all visible in the layout of the mortuary complex and the manufacture of terracotta figures and bronze artefacts for inhumation in the Terracotta Army pits (Duan 2011; Martinón-Torres et al 2011, 2014; Li et al 2014, 2016; Quinn et al 2017, 2020). Specially selected horses and their positioning in orderly groups in K0006 make this accessory pit another example of specific planning within the complex.…”

Combustion, Chemistry, and Carbon Neutrality

“…24 The variation in the material seems to agree more with a creation process of individual terracotta figures rather than with a modular, assembly line-type process that would mass-produce only certain ceramic parts. 24 Excellent control of the raw material selection and processing, likely using sands as additives to the clay paste for a smooth drying process, as well as of the firing temperature and atmosphere have been necessary to produce these statues with a wall thickness of up to 0.1 m and heights of near 2 m. 23 To avoid multiple failures in the firing process, slow rates of temperature increase must have been applied that are consistent with the use of kilns of adequate sizes, remnants of which have been identified near the main excavation sites. 23 Thin-section petrographic analyses suggest sustained firing temperatures not above 850 °C, in line with the microscopic structure of the samples, but details of the production process are still under debate.…”

“…23,24 Portable, noninvasive XRF was applied at the mausoleum site to characterize the geochemical composition of the clay types used to manufacture the ceramic statues and to shed light on the production process. 24 The variation in the material seems to agree more with a creation process of individual terracotta figures rather than with a modular, assembly line-type process that would mass-produce only certain ceramic parts. 24 Excellent control of the raw material selection and processing, likely using sands as additives to the clay paste for a smooth drying process, as well as of the firing temperature and atmosphere have been necessary to produce these statues with a wall thickness of up to 0.1 m and heights of near 2 m. 23 To avoid multiple failures in the firing process, slow rates of temperature increase must have been applied that are consistent with the use of kilns of adequate sizes, remnants of which have been identified near the main excavation sites.…”

“…23 Thin-section petrographic analyses suggest sustained firing temperatures not above 850 °C, in line with the microscopic structure of the samples, but details of the production process are still under debate. 23,24 Similar to the technology for manufacturing the ceramics, details of the making and finishing of the exceptionally wellpreserved bronze artifacts are being investigated, combining factors from metal processing as well as from the environment in which the artifacts were buried over extended times. 25 Depending on the targeted metal quality, increasingly sophisticated roasting and firing technologies were developed in different regions of the world from the early Iron Age, about 2000 years ago.…”

“…One particularly striking example that combines the results of superb metal and ceramics processing techniques is the Terracotta Army dating back more than 2200 years, − a small ensemble of which is shown in Figure . The huge assemblage of several thousand life-sized ceramic warriors and horses equipped with functional bronze weapons, body armors, harnesses, and other gear, some parts of which are moveable, has been a target for study of ancient technology and related production logistics for more than 40 years. , Portable, noninvasive XRF was applied at the mausoleum site to characterize the geochemical composition of the clay types used to manufacture the ceramic statues and to shed light on the production process . The variation in the material seems to agree more with a creation process of individual terracotta figures rather than with a modular, assembly line-type process that would mass-produce only certain ceramic parts .…”