Genetic Diversity of Botrytis cinerea Revealed by Multilocus Sequencing, and Identification of B. cinerea Populations Showing Genetic Isolation and Distinct Host Adaptation
Abstract:Botrytis cinerea is a world-wide occurring plant pathogen, causing pre- and post-harvest gray mold rot on a large number of fruit, vegetable, and flower crops. B. cinerea is closely related to Botrytis pseudocinerea, another broad host range species which often occurs in sympatry with B. cinerea, and to several host-specific species including Botrytis fabae and Botrytis calthae. B. cinerea populations have been shown to be genetically heterogeneous, and attempts have been made to correlate genetic markers to v… Show more
“…Recently, we have discovered a group of B. cinerea field strains which lack the complete botcinin biosynthesis cluster. These strains are less virulent than other B. cinerea strains on tomato leaves but not on other host tissues (Plesken et al 2021). These data confirm that botrydial and botcinin together play a significant role for B. cinerea pathogenesis, but their mode of action is unknown, and their individual contributions to the infection process remain unclear.…”
Botrytis cinerea is a major pathogen of more than 1400 plant species. During infection, the kills host cells during infection and spreads through necrotic tissue, which is believed to be supported by induction of programmed plant cell death. To comprehensively evaluate the contributions of most of the currently known plant cell death inducing proteins (CDIPs) and metabolites for necrotrophic infection, an optimized CRISPR/Cas protocol was established which allowed serial marker-free mutagenesis to generate Botrytis mutants lacking up to 12 different CDIPs. Infection analysis revealed a decrease in virulence with increasing numbers of knockouts, and differences in the effects of knockouts on different host plants. The on planta secretomes obtained from these mutants revealed substantial remaining necrotic activity after infiltration into leaves. Our study has addressed for the first time the functional redundancy of virulence factors of a fungal pathogen, and demonstrates that B. cinerea releases a highly redundant cocktail of proteins and metabolites to achieve necrotrophic infection of a wide variety of host plants.
“…Recently, we have discovered a group of B. cinerea field strains which lack the complete botcinin biosynthesis cluster. These strains are less virulent than other B. cinerea strains on tomato leaves but not on other host tissues (Plesken et al 2021). These data confirm that botrydial and botcinin together play a significant role for B. cinerea pathogenesis, but their mode of action is unknown, and their individual contributions to the infection process remain unclear.…”
Botrytis cinerea is a major pathogen of more than 1400 plant species. During infection, the kills host cells during infection and spreads through necrotic tissue, which is believed to be supported by induction of programmed plant cell death. To comprehensively evaluate the contributions of most of the currently known plant cell death inducing proteins (CDIPs) and metabolites for necrotrophic infection, an optimized CRISPR/Cas protocol was established which allowed serial marker-free mutagenesis to generate Botrytis mutants lacking up to 12 different CDIPs. Infection analysis revealed a decrease in virulence with increasing numbers of knockouts, and differences in the effects of knockouts on different host plants. The on planta secretomes obtained from these mutants revealed substantial remaining necrotic activity after infiltration into leaves. Our study has addressed for the first time the functional redundancy of virulence factors of a fungal pathogen, and demonstrates that B. cinerea releases a highly redundant cocktail of proteins and metabolites to achieve necrotrophic infection of a wide variety of host plants.
“…These strains are less virulent than other B . cinerea strains on tomato leaves but not on other host tissues [ 63 ]. In the present study, the 12xbb mutant lacking bot2 and boa6 was significantly less virulent than its 10x mutant parent, on all host tissues tested except on maize leaves, and this mutant was confirmed to be unable to produce botrydial and botcinins, in contrast to the 10x mutant.…”
Botrytis cinerea is a major plant pathogen infecting more than 1400 plant species. During invasion, the fungus rapidly kills host cells, which is believed to be supported by induction of programmed plant cell death. To comprehensively evaluate the contributions of most of the currently known plant cell death inducing proteins (CDIPs) and metabolites for necrotrophic infection, an optimized CRISPR/Cas9 protocol was established which allowed to perform serial marker-free mutagenesis to generate multiple deletion mutants lacking up to 12 CDIPs. Whole genome sequencing of a 6x and 12x deletion mutant revealed a low number of off-target mutations which were unrelated to Cas9-mediated cleavage. Secretome analyses confirmed the loss of secreted proteins encoded by the deleted genes. Infection tests with the mutants revealed a successive decrease in virulence with increasing numbers of mutated genes, and varying effects of the knockouts on different host plants. Comparative analysis of mutants confirmed significant roles of two polygalacturonases (PG1, PG2) and the phytotoxic metabolites botrydial and botcinins for infection, but revealed no or only weak effects of deletion of the other CDIPs. Nicotiana benthamiana plants with mutated or silenced coreceptors of pattern recognition receptors, SOBIR1 and BAK1, showed similar susceptibility as control plants to infection by B. cinerea wild type and a 12x deletion mutant. These results raise doubts about a major role of manipulation of these plant defence regulators for B. cinerea infection. Despite the loss of most of the known phytotoxic compounds, the on planta secretomes of the multiple mutants retained substantial phytotoxic activity, proving that further, as yet unknown CDIPs contribute to necrosis and virulence. Our study has addressed for the first time systematically the functional redundancy of fungal virulence factors, and demonstrates that B. cinerea releases a highly redundant cocktail of proteins to achieve necrotrophic infection of a wide variety of host plants.
“…This has resulted in a separation into four genetically different types of B. cinerea inside the species: Boty or Fliper, depending on which element it possesses; trasposa if it has both elements; and vacuma if it has none of them. The fungi that possess transposable elements are more virulent, and even those belonging to the Boty type are able to release small RNAs that knock out some plant defense genes [18].…”
Botrytis cinerea is a phytopathogenic fungus responsible for economic losses from USD 10 to 100 billion worldwide. It affects more than 1400 plant species, thus becoming one of the main threats to the agriculture systems. The application of fungicides has for years been an efficient way to control this disease. However, fungicides have negative environmental consequences that have changed popular opinion and clarified the need for more sustainable solutions. Biopesticides are products formulated based on microorganisms (bacteria or fungi) with antifungal activity through various mechanisms. This review gathers the most important mechanisms of antifungal activities and the microorganisms that possess them. Among the different modes of action, there are included the production of diffusible molecules, both antimicrobial molecules and siderophores; production of volatile organic compounds; production of hydrolytic enzymes; and other mechanisms, such as the competition and induction of systemic resistance, triggering an interaction at different levels and inhibition based on complex systems for the production of molecules and regulation of crop biology. Such a variety of mechanisms results in a powerful weapon against B. cinerea; some of them have been tested and are already used in the agricultural production with satisfactory results.
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