Genes, Gender Inequality, and Educational Attainment

Abstract

Women’s opportunities have been profoundly altered over the past century by reductions in the social and structural constraints that limit women’s educational attainment. Do social constraints manifest as a suppressing influence on genetic indicators of potential, and if so, did equalizing opportunity mean equalizing the role of genetics? We address this with three cohort studies: the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS; birth years 1939 to 1940), the Health and Retirement Study, and the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health; birth years 1975 to 1982). These studies include a “polygenic score” for educational attainment, providing a novel opportunity to explore this question. We find that within the WLS cohort, the relationship between genetics and educational outcomes is weaker for women than for men. However, as opportunities changed in the 1970s and 1980s, and many middle-aged women went back to school, the relationship between genetic factors and education strengthened for women as they aged. Furthermore, utilizing the HRS and Add Health, we find that as constraints limiting women’s educational attainment declined, gender differences in the relationship between genetics and educational outcomes weakened. We demonstrate that genetic influence must be understood through the lens of historical change, the life course, and social structures like gender.

Genetic and environmental variation in educational attainment: an individual-based analysis of 28 twin cohorts

“…Thus, in the later birth cohorts, the role of genetic and environmental factors converged in men and women. Parallel results have been found in molecular genetic research: A US study found that the polygenic risk score of education predicted educational years more strongly in men than in women and this difference has diminished from the cohorts born in the 1930s to 1950s 30 . This may be associated to more equal opportunities for women to get a higher education in the later birth cohorts, which also this study showed by an increasing education in women.…”

School Outcomes of Children Raised by Same-Sex Parents: Evidence from Administrative Panel Data

“…Moreover, lesbian couples conceiving via donor insemination also go through a selection process to determine which of the two mothers will carry the child. These genetic traits are likely to positively influence children's outcomes (Herd et al 2019).…”

Does Parental Separation Lower Genetic Influences on Children's School Performance?

“…The heritability estimations for different indicators of school performance provide insights about the role of genes and whether children can express their genetic potential related to education. However, when considering genetic influences relevant for education and its predictors, it is important to take into account that the relative importance of genes can depend on environmental conditions (e.g., Heath et al, 1985;Herd et al, 2019;Guo & Stearns, 2002;Turkheimer et al, 2003;Gottschling et al, 2019;Baier & Lang, 2019).…”