“…Pyrethroid/permethrin resistant mosquitoes exhibit insecticide resistance through elevated levels of multiple detoxification enzymes, including GSTs [ 14 , 20 , 21 , 22 ], ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters [ 21 , 23 ], carboxylesterase [ 14 , 24 , 25 ], and cytochrome P450 [ 14 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ]. Penetration resistance occurs through modifications in cuticular proteins [ 14 , 34 ]; metabolic resistance occurs by detoxification enzymes and G-protein-coupled receptor [ 26 ], UDP glucuronosyltransferase, and glucosyl/glucuronosyl transferase [ 32 , 35 ]; and target site insensitivity is mediated by changes in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene [ 11 , 15 , 36 , 37 ], and transcription factor Maf-S [ 38 ].…”