Gendered Pathways of Internalizing Problems from Early Childhood to Adolescence and Associated Adolescent Outcomes

Abstract

Despite trends indicating worsening internalizing problems, characterized by anxiety and depression, there is dearth of research examining gender differences in developmental trajectories of internalizing problems from early childhood to adolescence. Drawing on the UK Millennium Cohort Study (n = 17,206, 49% female), this study examines trajectories of parent-reported, clinically-meaningful (reflecting the top 10%) internalizing problems from ages 3 to 14 years and their early predictors and adolescent outcomes. Group-based modelling revealed three trajectories when examining boys and girls together, but there were significant gender differences. When examining boys and girls separately, four trajectories were identified including two relatively stable trajectories showing either high or low probabilities of internalizing problems. An increasing trajectory was also found for both boys and girls, showing an increasing probability of internalizing problems which continued to rise for girls, but levelled off for boys from age 11. A decreasing trajectory was revealed for boys, while a moderate but stable trajectory was identified for girls. Boys and girls in the increasing and high probability groups were more likely to report a number of problematic outcomes including high BMI, self-harm, low mental wellbeing, depressive symptoms, and low educational motivation than the low group. Girls on the increasing trajectory also reported more cigarette and cannabis use and early sexual activity at age 14 compared to girls on the low trajectory. Findings suggest that intervention strategies take a systemic view, targeting not only internal feelings, but also behaviours potentially associated with later negative outcomes.

Longitudinal Impact of Childhood Adversity on Early Adolescent Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic in the ABCD Study Cohort: Does Race or Ethnicity Moderate Findings?

“…Findings align with studies that have observed significant sex differences in mental health symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic ( 4 , 72 ). These findings may reflect the interaction of documented increases in internalizing symptoms in girls ( 73 , 74 ) co-occurring with additional pandemic stress. While not a primary focus of the current investigation, future research is warranted to examine the sex effects related to mental health during COVID-19.…”

Concomitant Trajectories of Internalising, Externalising, and Peer Problems Across Childhood: a Person-centered Approach

“…Both continuity and change over time were observed within trajectory groups, along with common and specific risk factors predicting group membership. Given the extensively documented maladaptive outcomes associated with internalising, externalising, and peer problems when examined individually (e.g., Bevilacqua et al, 2018;Rivenbark et al, 2018;Fairchild et al, 2019;Gutman & McMaster, 2020;Galera et al, 2021;Orri et al, 2018), identification of Percentages of prevalence displayed for chi-square analysis; means and (standard deviations) presented in analysis of variance. Group 1 is nonengagers, Group 2 is low increasing internalising/low stable-decreasing externalising and peer problems, Group 3 is normative, Group 4 is moderate increasing internalising/moderate decreasing-stable externalising and peer problems, Group 5 is low increasing internalising/mixed (moderate-decreasing, high-increasing) externalising/stable peer problems, and Group 6 is high chronic-increasing multimorbid.…”

As Time Goes by: Understanding Child and Family Factors Shaping Behavioral Outcomes After Traumatic Brain Injury

“…Longer term follow-up studies found increases in internalizing symptoms over several years after TBI in both sexes; additionally, younger boys showed greater oppositional defiant problems and older girls showed greater ADHD symptoms ( 6 ). Developmentally, internalizing behavior problems tend to increase more in girls than boys during adolescence ( 74 , 75 ), while externalizing problems are elevated in boys relative to girls ( 76 ). However, we did not identify vulnerability of boys to increases in either outcome domain.…”