Gender in Childhood

Abstract

Gender refers to the social relationships between males and females in terms of their roles, behaviours, activities, attributes and opportunities, and which are based on different levels of power. Gender interacts with, but is distinct from, the binary categories of biological sex. In this paper we consider how gender interacts with the 2030 agenda for sustainable development, including sustainable development goal (SDG) 3 and its targets for health and well-being, and the impact on health equity. We propose a conceptual framework for understanding the interactions between gender (SDG 5) and health (SDG 3) and 13 other SDGs, which influence health outcomes. We explore the empirical evidence for these interactions in relation to three domains of gender and health: gender as a social determinant of health; gender as a driver of health behaviours; and the gendered response of health systems. The paper highlights the complex relationship between health and gender, and how these domains interact with the broad 2030 agenda. Across all three domains (social determinants, health behaviours and health system), we find evidence of the links between gender, health and other SDGs. For example, education (SDG 4) has a measurable impact on health outcomes of women and children, while decent work (SDG 8) affects the rates of occupationrelated morbidity and mortality, for both men and women. We propose concerted and collaborative actions across the interlinked SDGs to deliver health equity, health and well-being for all, as well as to enhance gender equality and women's empowerment. These proposals are summarized in an agenda for action.

Young children’s mathematics learning from same-gender and other-gender intelligent character prototypes.

“…Cognitive processing speed may have increased when children engaged with same-gender characters due to activation of gender schemas, which can serve as informational filters (Bem, 1981). Gender schematic processing may be particularly likely for children during the preschool years when own-gender group interest is high and rigid adherence to gender stereotypes is common (Brown et al, 2020). Gender schemas may have facilitated children's processing and organization of information in the math game when the character was part of their gender group (i.e., "I see a girl character, I am a girl, this content is for me"; Calvert & Huston, 1987).…”

“…Gender is a particularly salient social group (Brown et al, 2020), traditionally focused on the dichotomy of male and female categories in the U.S. (Bem, 1981). Although U.S. culture is shifting away from a strictly binary conceptualization of gender, young children continue to more often be categorized by themselves and others as either male or female (Blakemore et al, 2013).…”

“…Although U.S. culture is shifting away from a strictly binary conceptualization of gender, young children continue to more often be categorized by themselves and others as either male or female (Blakemore et al, 2013). Especially during the preschool years, children are interested in what it means to be a boy or a girl and favor their own gender (Bem, 1981;Brown et al, 2020).…”

“…Gender schemas can guide perception, learning, and memory (Bem, 1981;Martin & Halverson, 1983). Children prefer engaging with same-gender peers (Brown et al, 2020), which is mirrored in children's preferences for same-gender media characters (Richards & Calvert, 2017a). Children better remember information related to their gender, compared to other genders (Signorella et al, 1993).…”

Are We Still a Sexist Society? Primary Socialisation and Adherence to Gender Roles in Childhood

“…Since the development of these schemes is strongly conditioned by the environment in which children live and from which they learn, during childhood, the family context and in particular parental communication and behaviour play a central role in the internalisation of stereotypes [ 3 ]. As age increases, especially during the primary school years, together with the family context, the socio-cultural context, teachers, peers and the media play a crucial role in the acquisition of social constraints that have long-term impacts on their aspirations and the perception of their opportunities, affecting also their relational and psychological well-being [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ].…”