Gender Discrimination (GD): A Conceptual Trauma-Based Framework for GD and the Development of Gender Discrimination Inventory

Abstract

A comprehensive plausible conceptual model of Gender Discrimination (GD) and accurate measures of its components are lacking. Current study developed a conceptual model of GD derived from the development-based trauma framework (DBT) and constructed measures for GD and its coping dynamics and tested them in two studies on Egyptian female college students. The first study conducted on a sample of 150, and the second study conducted on 311 participants. Exploratory factor analysis in the first sample, and confirmatory factor analysis in the second sample confirmed three components of GD (GD by parents attitudes, GD by parents behavior, and GD by society), and three components of GD coping dynamics (gender identity conflict (GIC), internalized GD, and GD resistance). GD measures are found to have generally good reliability and stability, good construct, and predictive validity. Using path analysis in the second study, GD, controlling for other life traumas, predicted a significant decrease in self-esteem and self-efficacy and increase in existential anxiety, which mediated its effects on PTSD and complex PTSD. GIC and internalized GD further moderated GD effects. GD inventory that includes 6 measures with 33 items can be a parsimonious tool for future research on GD.

Sexist Microaggressions: Traumatic Stressors Mediated by Self-Compassion

“…Kira et al (2015) theorized that individuals affected by identity-based traumas often internalize discriminatory messages, adopt the demeaned persona, and legitimize experiences of discrimination, which can contribute to feelings of worthlessness and/or self-loathing. The authors found a significant relationship between gender discrimination and trauma symptoms; further, this relationship was partially and significantly mediated by changes in self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-concept.…”

“…Given that trauma has been described as a mediated process in which a stressor distorts one’s self-concept and results in trauma symptoms (Kira, 2001; Kira et al, 2015), we posited that sexist microaggressions may serve as traumatic stressors. Further, we posited that self-compassion and internalized misogyny would mediate the relationship between sexist microaggressions and trauma symptomatology.…”

“…Daily sexist microaggressions immerse women in a sea of discriminatory messages causing an accumulative strain that can lead to negative effects on mental health, self-esteem, identity, performance, and physical health outcomes (Sue, 2010). Research on oppression (e.g., racism, sexism, hetrosexism) has examined the traumatic effects that prolonged exposure to oppression has on the oppressed (e.g., Carter, 2007;Kira et al, 2015). According to trauma theory, trauma occurs when there are sudden, uncontrollable, negative experiences followed by a common set of symptoms, including distortions in beliefs about, and attitudes toward the self (van der Kolk et al, 1996).…”

A Conceptual Model and Measurement of Identity-Based, Existential Annihilation Anxieties (EAA)

“…The proposed conceptual framework is based on the developmentally-based trauma framework (DBTF) (Kira, 2001;Kira et al, 2013b;Kira et al, 2010;Kira et al, 2015;Kira, Lewandowski, Chiodo, & Ibrahim, 2014;Kira, et al, 2018a), and collective terror management theory (CTMT) (Kira, 2002). According to DBTF and CTMT, EAA may develop in the individual starting with the individuation processes in early adolescence through adulthood.…”

“…Psychic EAA emerges when personal identity (i.e., autonomy, agency) is threatened by impending traumatic events such as sexual abuse or rape. Collective EAAs emerges when one of the important groups that the person closely identifies with is threatened, demeaned, or assigned comparative inferior status by other strong competitor or dominant groups (e.g., Kira, Shuwiekh, & Bujold-Bugeaud, 2015;Kira et al, 2010;. EAAs may emerge upon events or chronic conditions that seriously threaten a core achievement/self-actualizing goal or socio-economic status of the individual.…”