Gender Differences in Traumatic Experiences, PTSD, and Relevant Symptoms among the Iraqi Internally Displaced Persons

Abstract

Conflict in Iraq has led to a large number of internally displaced Iraqis, with a great impact on their mental health. A few previous studies investigated the gender differences of mental disorders in Iraqi internally displaced persons (IDPs). The aim of this study was to assess gender differences among Iraqi IDPs after the 2014 terrorist attacks in terms of types of traumatic experiences, prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and other symptoms of common mental disorders (depression, anxiety, and somatization symptoms). A cross-sectional survey was conducted in April–June 2015 among 358 female and 464 male adult IDPs living in IDP camps in Duhok, Iraq. The Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (HTQ), General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28), and Self-Reporting Questionnaire (SRQ-20) were applied by local interviewers. Comparison of scores of these measures between the two genders was performed using independent sample t-tests. Logistic regression analysis was carried out to identify predictors for PTSD. Although the types of traumatic events experienced by female and male IDPs were nearly similar, males reported higher exposure to combat situation, torture, oppressions, and destruction of personal properties (t = 3.718 and 4.758, respectively, p < 0.001). Overall, males experienced more events than females (p < 0.001). The probable PTSD prevalence rates (29.1% among females and 31.9% among males) did not differ significantly (p = 0.212). Female IDPs reported more somatic (p < 0.001) and depressive/anxious (p < 0.001) symptoms than males. The demographic factors and duration of camp stay were not associated significantly with PTSD diagnosis. Probable PTSD rates among male and female IDPs in Iraq are substantial. Although no gender differences were found in probable PTSD rates between female and male Iraqi IDPs, the rate of common mental disorders cases was higher among females and they presented with higher levels of somatic and depressive/anxious symptoms. Further studies are needed to clarify the underlying mechanisms contributing to gender differences in PTSD.

Prevalence and risk factors of posttraumatic stress symptoms among Internally Displaced Christian couples in Erbil, Iraq

“…The number of traumatic events proved to be associated with PTSSs, indicating the effect of cumulative trauma exposure on developing PTSSs ( 11 ), confirming findings from previous studies among displaced populations ( 10 , 22 – 24 , 32 , 33 ). When examining traumatic events that could have impacted on PTSSs, our findings showed that not having access to medical care in case of illness was a significant predictor of mental health symptoms.…”

“…In recent years, the research highlighted that the prevalence of PTSD among IDPs in the country has rapidly grown ( 11 , 16 – 18 ). However, there are still limited studies on the prevalence of PTSD among minorities, particularly Christians.…”

Gender and Place of Settlement as Predictors of Perceived Social Support, PTSD, and Insomnia among Internally Displaced Adolescents in North-East Nigeria

“…No statistically significant effect of gender was found on perceived social support, PTSD symptoms, and insomnia. In terms of the non-significant gender effect on PTSD, this finding is congruent with the results previously reported by Taha and Sijbrandij (2021) in Iraqi, and by Yasan et al (2009) in Turkey, among IDPs. It is also consistent with the findings by Rothe et al (2002) in the Cube, Elbedour et al (2007) in Gaza, Ellis et al (2008) in Somali, and the study of Mels et al (2010) in the Eastern Region of Congo.…”

“…Where females reported more PTSD symptoms than males in Cambodia and Algeria, males reported more PTSD symptoms than females in Gaza. Other similar studies have reported no differences between the presence of PTSD in males and females (Taha and Sijbrandij 2021;Thabet and Thabet 2017).…”

Training of psychotherapists in post-conflict regions: A Community case study in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq

“…Among Syrian refugees in northern Iraq, a prevalence of 35–38% for PTSD related to trauma and torture was found by Ibrahim and Hassan ( 7 ). These numbers coincide with more recent findings about IDPs in Dohuk province by Taha and Sijbrandij ( 22 ), who report a rate of 29.1% for PTSD among female IDPs and 31.9% among male IDPs. The rate of common mental disorder cases was 65.1% among female IDPs compared with male IDPs (55.4%).…”