Gender Differences in the Risk and Protective Factors Associated With PTSD: A Prospective Study of National Guard Troops Deployed to Iraq

Abstract

This study examines gender differences in post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and PTSS risk/protective factors among soldiers deployed to Iraq. We pay special attention to two potentially modifiable military factors, military preparedness and unit cohesion, which may buffer the deleterious psychological effects of combat. Longitudinal data were collected on 922 New Jersey National Guard soldiers (91 women) deployed to Iraq in 2008. Anonymous surveys administered at pre- and post-deployment included the PTSD Checklist (PCL), the Unit Support Scale, and a preparedness scale adapted from the Iowa Gulf War Study. Bivariate analyses and hierarchical multiple regression were used to identify predictors of PTSS and their explanatory effects on the relationship between gender and PTSS. Women had a higher prevalence of probable post-deployment PTSD than men (18.7% vs. 8.7%; OR = 2.45; CI [1.37, 4.37]) and significantly higher post-deployment PTSS (33.73 vs. 27.37; p = .001). While there were no gender differences in combat exposure, women scored higher on pre-deployment PTSS (26.9 vs. 23.1; p ≤ .001) and lower on military preparedness (1.65 vs. 2.41; p ≤ .001) and unit cohesion (32.5 vs. 38.1; p ≤ .001). In a multivariate model, controlling for all PTSS risk/resilience factors reduced the gender difference as measured by the unstandardized Beta (B) by 45%, with 18% uniquely attributable to low cohesion and low preparedness. In the fully controlled model, gender remained a significant predictor of PTSS but the effect size was small (d = .26). Modifiable military institutional factors may account for much of the increased vulnerability of women soldiers to PTSD.

Psychometric Evaluation of the Japanese Version of the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist in Community Dwellers Following the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant Incident

“…This accords with previous findings among community dwellers (Freedy et al, 2010) and a military sample (Kline et al, 2013), wherein women tended to have more PTSD symptoms as assessed by the PCL than did men. PTSD scores have also been shown to be higher among women when measured using the Impact of Event Scale-Revised, Japanese Version (Asukai et al, 2002), which suggests that women are more vulnerable to developing PTSD symptoms.…”

Predictors of Depression Diagnoses and Symptoms in Veterans: Results From a National Survey

“…Historical discrimination against women in the service branches combined with cultural issues that linger in the present day can make issues of social support and unit cohesion uniquely salient for military women (Kline et al, 2013;Mitchell, 1989). Women comprise one of the fastest growing segments of the veteran population, and they are being used increasingly in combat roles despite existing Congressional restrictions.…”

“…Researchers in 2012 conducted a study of one New Jersey Army National Guard unit before and after a deployment to Iraq. Women were 18% more likely than their male peers to exhibit depression symptoms, and this correlated to lower levels of selfreported unit cohesion (Kline et al, 2013). Women are more likely to face issues of discrimination and belonging, and are at a disproportionately high risk for Military Sexual Understanding the role sex plays in depression likelihood is powerfully important and relevant as women's participation in the military is only increasing .…”

Does<b><i> BDNF</i></b> Val66Met Polymorphism Confer Risk for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?

“…Although there are sex differences among psychiatric diseases [29], whether gender moderates the PTSD risk is still inconclusive [14,30,31]. We did not use sex as a variable because of the limited number of studies and the result that BDNF Val66Met was not linked to PTSD in both sexes [26].…”