Gender as an Obstacle in HIV/AIDS Prevention: Considerations for the Development of HIV/AIDS Prevention Efforts for Male-to-Female Transgenders

Estimating HIV Prevalence and Risk Behaviors of Transgender Persons in the United States: A Systematic Review

“…Social relationships were also impacted by a fear of rejection by partners or others (Bockting et al 1998), limited familial support and social isolation (Bockting, et al 2005;Rodriguez-Madera and Toro-Alfonso 2005;Garofalo et al 2006;Nemoto et al 2004a;Rose et al 2003), and negative societal views of gender variant identities (Clements-Nolle et al 2001a;Rose et al 2003). A lack of connection to the gay, lesbian and bisexual community, and the lack of a cohesive transgender community may also contribute to impaired social relationships among transgender persons (Elifson et al 1993;Garofalo et al 2006;Bockting et al 1998).…”

“…While the majority of MTFs in seven studies (Conare et al 1997;Kenagy 2002;McGowan 1999;Reback and Simon 2004;Rodriguez-Madera and Toro-Alfonso 2005;Singer et al 1997;Sykes 1999) were considered to be at high risk for HIV according to their self-reported risk behaviors, most respondents did not believe they were at risk for having HIV/AIDS (weighted mean, 71.6%) or at risk for getting the AIDS virus in the future (weighted mean, 83.9%). In another study (Sykes 1999), only 15% of 232 transgender persons estimated their risk of acquiring HIV as ''greater than most people.…”

‘It's really a hard life’: Love, gender and HIV risk among male‐to‐female transgender persons

“…Bockting et al (1998) state that MTFs discussed how their quest for affirmation of their gender identity led to unsafe sex. Rodriguez-Madera and Toro-Alfonso (2005) found that MTFs' construct of feminine gender identity interferes with condom negotiation and is a major factor to consider in HIV prevention for MTFs.…”

Gender Identity and Social Services: Barriers to Care

“…In California, Minter and Daley (2003) found that 20% of respondents suffered discrimination in accessing social services in general, 31% experienced discrimination in health care, and 6% suffered discrimination in child custody determinations. Reback, Simon, Bemis, and Gatson (2001) found that 4% of respondents had experienced discrimination when accessing HIV prevention services in Los Angeles, and in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico, 42% of transgender respondents had difficulty obtaining government-based social services (Rodríquez-Madera & Toro-Alfonso, 2005). Kenagy (2005a) reported that 7% of respondents in Philadelphia had been refused counseling simply because they were transgender, 10% had been refused counseling for transgender-related issues, and 26.0% had been denied medical services (Kenagy, 2005b).…”

“…Having a nontraditional gender identity may be associated with higher risk for a variety of challenges, including HIV/AIDs (Clements-Nolle, Marx, Guzman, & Katz, 2001;Rodríquez-Madera & Toro-Alfonso, 2005), increased incidence of addictions (Clements-Nolle et al, 2001;, difficulties in employment (Whittle, 2003), problems maintaining consistent housing (Xavier, 2000), being engaged in sex work (Valera, Sawyer, & Schiraldi, 2001), and experiencing high levels of violence (Stotzer, 2009). Limited research has also begun to explore the many people under the "transgender" umbrella and has found that different groups, such as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM) transgender people have different social service needs, and these need are often not being met (Kenagy & Hsieh, 2005).…”