Gender and power in organizations: A longitudinal perspective.

Abstract

This article advances a longitudinal, resource development model of power in organizations and uses it to organize a review of empirical research and related theory concerning differences between the genders in power. The review incorporates four levels of analysis-social-systems, organizational, interpersonal, and individual-and emphasizes the accumulation of resources for power at critical career transitions. Research reveals a consistent difference favoring men in accessibility to, and utility of, resources for power. It suggests that the processes involved in the development of power differ for men and women and that the path to power for women resembles an obstacle course. Implications are discussed.This article provides a review of the research literature concerning differences between men and women in power in organizations and explores reasons behind these differences. It proposes a framework for analysis and examines empirical research and theory concerning societal, organizational, interpersonal, and individual factors related to power from a longitudinal perspective.In comparison with men, women occupy proportionately fewer positions of power in organizations, especially in the highest ranks. Women tend to be concentrated in lower ranks (F. D. Blau & Ferber, 1987; U.S. Department of Labor, 1979 and are underrepresented in relatively powerful managerial positions (Brown

Gender diversity policies in universities: a multi-perspective framework of policy measures

“…We will briefly review theories and perspectives that explain vertical gender segregation. We follow Ragins and Sundstrom (1989) and Fagenson (1990) in distinguishing three sets of factors to explain women's underrepresentation at higher job levels: (1) individual, (2) cultural, and (3) structural or institutional influences. For universities, a comparable set of three mechanisms explains why women 0 s rank advancements are fewer, slower and lower than men 0 s, notably ceilings, thresholds, and hurdles (Toren and Moore 1998).…”

“…In the early 1970s Schein (1973Schein ( , 1975 demonstrated a relationship between sex role stereotyping and characteristics considered to be needed for management success. The stereotype of the relatively submissive, passive, non-rational character of women is considered to be contrary to the demands of top level positions (Billing and Alvesson 2000;Fagenson 1990;Ragins and Sundstrom 1989;Van Vianen and Fischer 2002). In addition to presumed differences in character, a discrepancy exists between the stereotyped conceptions of what women are like and of what upper level managerial jobs entail.…”

“…Furthermore, organizations are located in societies, with particular cultural values, ideologies, societal and structural practices and stereotypes regarding appropriate roles and behaviors for men and women, which affect the processes in organizations (Fagenson 1990). Previous research (Broadbridge and Hearn 2008;Heilman 2001;Heilman et al 1993;Ragins and Sundstrom 1989;Willemsen 2002) has demonstrated that, while management in organizations is represented as gender neutral, it often involves practices that are consistent with characteristics traditionally valued in men, stereotyping and a preference for men. Although explicit gender discrimination has been outlawed for many years, some of those studies have demonstrated that subtle discrimination still exists.…”

Entrepreneurial Teams, Gender, and New Venture Survival: Contexts and Institutions

“…The "missing link" in entrepreneurial team research is the use of diversity in terms of disparity. Diversity in type of disparity is rather connected to more traditional sociological theories in terms of social power, inequality, status, privileges, and so on (Ragins & Sundstrom, 1989). Power is here defined as "influence by one person over others, stemming from a position in an organization, from interpersonal relationships, or from individual characteristics" (p. 51), and can be categorized as objective or perceived.…”

Uwarunkowania i konsekwencje politycznych zachowań organizacyjnych

“…Kierownicy z potrzebą władzy instytucjonalnej dbają o kulturę i klimat organizacyjny sprzyjający efektywnej pracy, a podwładnych przywiązują do organizacji [McClelland, Burnham 2003]. Uwzględniając różnice mię-dzypłciowe, menedżerowie płci żeńskiej są bardziej oddani instytucji niż kierownicy płci męskiej [Ragins, Sundstrom 1989].…”