Gallium, Indium, and Thallium

Abstract

The chemical elements gallium, indium, and thallium belong to group IIIA in the periodic table. Unlike other metals, such as lead and arsenic, which have been featured prominently in toxicologic folklore since antiquity, they are relative newcomers, discovered from 1861 to 1876. Since then, thallium has developed a well‐deserved reputation for its toxic properties and is recognized as a potent accidental, occupational, and environmental poison, with incidence in cases of homicide and suicide. Although gallium and indium are not as toxic as thallium, their production and industrial use represent an important source of exposure, particularly in the increasing manufacture of semiconductor electronic devices. Gallium compounds particularly produce pulmonary toxicity. Indium compounds induce pulmonary toxicity and also nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and developmental toxicity, whereas thallium compounds act as general poisons. Some compounds are also capable of altering various cellular defense mechanisms involved in carcinogenesis. However, many aspects of the toxicity of individual compounds in human beings, including toxicokinetics, mechanisms of action, teratogenic potential, and the best treatment, remain to be elucidated.

Thermoluminescence as a complementary technique for the toxicological evaluation of chemicals in photosynthetic organisms

“…These results are not in agreement with the reported induction by indium of lipid peroxidation in mice liver (Verstraeten et al, 1997;Repetto and del Peso, 2012). Indium promotes membrane rigidification and lateral phase separation; both parameters are well correlated with the ability 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 18 of the ions to stimulate Fe 2+ -initiated lipid peroxidation.…”

Gallium

“…Trace concentrations of gallium present in tissues and biological fluids can be determined using several analytical methods. Gallium concentrations on the order of 0.10 -40 mg L À1 or mg kg À1 can be determined in urine, blood plasma, kidney, liver and lung tissue using fluorescence techniques (Scott et al 1987, Dickerson and Smith 1994, Repetto and del Peso 2001. A fluorometric procedure based on the reaction of gallium with salicylaldehyde thiocarbohydrazone having a detection limit of 2 mg L À1 was developed by Urena et al (1985).…”

“…Low blood levels of gallium reported following subcutaneous injection indicate that absorption is limited by that route of administration (Repetto and del Peso 2001). In addition, gallium is not readily absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract; most likely, hydrolysis of Ga 3+ salts to the insoluble and unabsorbable hydroxide, Ga(OH) 3 , is responsible for the low level of absorption (Dickerson and Smith 1994).…”

“…In addition, gallium is not readily absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract; most likely, hydrolysis of Ga 3+ salts to the insoluble and unabsorbable hydroxide, Ga(OH) 3 , is responsible for the low level of absorption (Dickerson and Smith 1994). Of the gallium that is absorbed, accumulation occurs primarily in the bone in less than 4 h, where it is retained for longer than 3 months (Repetto and del Peso 2001). In rats and humans, soft tissues such as liver and kidney initially concentrate gallium, but levels decline rapidly (Nelson et al 1972.…”

Alteração da atividade enzimática em organismos aquáticos por poluentes de origem agrícola: uma abordagem geral e sobre a suscetibilidade da fosfatase ácida

“…Os estudos de avaliação da atividade enzimática in vitro representam uma ferramenta útil na triagem de vários agentes poluentes e têm sido usados em áreas de monitoramento, 78,79 como métodos de análise semiquantitativa de poluentes orgânicos e metais pesados. [80][81][82][83][84] Neste sentido, com base no conhecimento da interação poluente-enzima, biossensores para a detecção de metais pesados e agroquímicos foram construídos com fundamentos na inibição da fosfatase alcalina presente em algas.…”