Functional neuroanatomy and neuropathology of the human hypothalamus

Abstract

The human hypothalamus is involved in a wide range of functions in the developing, adult and aging subject and is responsible for a large number of symptoms of neuroendocrine, neurological and psychiatric diseases. In the present review some prominent hypothalamic nuclei are discussed in relation to normal development, sexual differentiation, aging and a number of neuropathological conditions. The suprachiasmatic nucleus, the clock of the brain, shows seasonal and circadian variations in its vasopressin neurons. During normal aging, but even more so in Alzheimer's disease, the number of these neurons decreases. In homosexual men this nucleus is larger than in heterosexual men. The difference between the sexually dimorphic nuclei of men and women arises between the ages of 2-4 to puberty. In adult men this nucleus is twice as large as in adult women. In the process of aging, a sex-dependent decrease in cell number occurs. The vasopressin and oxytocin cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nucleus are present in adult numbers as early as mid-gestation. Lower oxytocin neuron numbers are found in Prader-Willi syndrome, AIDS and Parkinson's disease. Familial hypothalamic diabetes insipidus is based upon a point mutation in the vasopressin-neurophysin-glycopeptide gene. Parvicellular corticotropin-releasing hormone-containing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus increase in number and are activated during the course of aging. In post-menopausal women, the infundibular or arcuate nucleus contains hypertrophic neurons containing oestrogen receptors. These neurons may be involved in the initiation of menopausal flushes. The nucleus tuberalis lateralis may be involved in feeding behaviour and metabolism. In Huntington's disease the majority of its neurons is lost; in Alzheimer's disease it shows very strong cytoskeletal alterations. Tuberomammillary nucleus neurons contain, e.g., histamine or galanine, and project to the cortex. Strong cytoskeletal changes, as well as plaques and tangles are found in this nucleus in Alzheimer's disease. The various hypothalamic nuclei are probably involved in many functions and symptoms of which only a minority has been revealed.

MRI atlas of the human hypothalamus

“…Anatomical sections were annotated using data from the literature, especially the atlas of Mai et al (Mai et al, 2008) and review articles from Braak and Braak Braak, 1987, 1992), Swaab et al (Swaab et al, 1993) and Koutcherov et al (Koutcherov et al, 2000, 2002Koutcherov et al, 2007).…”

“… New insights into the anatomy of the human hypothalamus  Specific 1.5T MRI sequences approach histological resolution within the hypothalamus  White matter bundles within the hypothalamus can be identified using 1.5T MRI  Hypothalamic gray structures can be identified using 1.5T MRI *4. HighlightsWe have revised our manuscript to address the minor point raised by reviewer 3.In the "Data analysis" paragraph of the materials and methods section it now reads: "Structures were identified visually based on our knowledge of specific landmarks obtained from anatomical-histological cross sections and with reference to previously published atlases (Swaab et al, 1993;Koutcherov et al, 2000Koutcherov et al, , 2004Koutcherov et al, 2007;Mai et al, 2008); the landmarks used, such as the optic tract, the floor of the diencephalon, the third ventricle, and the fornix, were readily and reliably identifiable in MR scans." …”

“…In the "Data analysis" paragraph of the materials and methods section it now reads: "Structures were identified visually based on our knowledge of specific landmarks obtained from anatomical-histological cross sections and with reference to previously published atlases (Swaab et al, 1993;Koutcherov et al, 2000Koutcherov et al, , 2004Koutcherov et al, 2007;Mai et al, 2008); the landmarks used, such as the optic tract, the floor of the diencephalon, the third ventricle, and the fornix, were readily and reliably identifiable in MR scans." …”

Gsh‐1: A novel murine homeobox gene expressed in the central nervous system

“…the suprachiasmatic nucleus, which provides an important circadian pacemaker function (Swaab et al, 1993). The nuclei of the hypothalamus are important in feeding, sexual behavior, and aggression.…”

Somatostatin 1–12 immunoreactivity is decreased in the hypothalamic lateral tuberal nucleus of Huntington's disease patients

“…The lateral tuberal nucleus (nucleus tuberalis lateralis, NTL) is located in the basolateral tuberal hypothalamic region of man and higher primates [7,23]. Until recently, the nucleus could only be defined by cytoarchitectonie its criteria, i.e.…”