Functional architecture of the retina: Development and disease

Abstract

Structure and function are highly correlated in the vertebrate retina, a sensory tissue that is organized into cell layers with microcircuits working in parallel and together to encode visual information. All vertebrate retinas share a fundamental plan, comprising five major neuronal cell classes with cell body distributions and connectivity arranged in stereotypic patterns. Conserved features in retinal design have enabled detailed analysis and comparisons of structure, connectivity and function across species. Each species, however, can adopt structural and/or functional retinal specializations, implementing variations to the basic design in order to satisfy unique requirements in visual function. Recent advances in molecular tools, imaging and electrophysiological approaches have greatly facilitated identification of the cellular and molecular mechanisms that establish the fundamental organization of the retina and the specializations of its microcircuits during development. Here, we review advances in our understanding of how these mechanisms act to shape structure and function at the single cell level, to coordinate the assembly of cell populations, and to define their specific circuitry. We also highlight how structure is rearranged and function is disrupted in disease, and discuss current approaches to re-establish the intricate functional architecture of the retina.

Food Supplements Were Applied to the Mitochondrial Capacity of Retinal Cells and Oxidative Phosphorylation of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Synthesis

“…Electronic products emitted the light causes damage to the retina by free radical attacks, which is a common phenomenon [3,7].…”

“…The addition of Phyllanthus emblica extract can reduce retinal cells In the free radical content. in this way, Phyllanthus emblica extract can slow down the rate of apoptosis caused by mitochondrial disintegration, and can reduce the retinal cells due to excessive free radical content and damage, and then to achieve effectiveness of protection of retinal cells, and to achieve eye care effect [7,12,13].…”

Biophysical chemistry of the ageing eye lens

“…Light striking the retina triggers a series of electrochemical events that result in nerve impulses being sent to the visual centres of the brain via the optic nerve. The two layers of the retina consist of a pigmented layer of melanin-rich epithelial cells and a layer of light-sensitive neurons interconnected by synapses (Hoon et al 2014).…”

“…Furthermore, the collagen fibres that permeate the gel can aggregate over time causing light scattering which degrades vision quality (Petrash 2013;Quantock et al 2015). Likewise, the retina is susceptible to age-related macular degeneration which can involve either debris becoming lodged behind the retina or new blood vessels growing behind the retina from the choroid (Chiras et al 2015;Hoon et al 2014). In both cases, this causes the retina to become detached and results in loss of Fig.…”

Neurotransmission plays contrasting roles in the maturation of inhibitory synapses on axons and dendrites of retinal bipolar cells

“…We compared the postsynaptic maturation of GABA-and glycinergic synapses on cone BCs (CBCs) versus rod BCs (RBCs) that operate at different light levels. Among CBCs, we analyzed both ON and OFF BC types, which depolarize or hyperpolarize to light increments, respectively (13).…”