Fullerenes: From Carbon to Nanomedicine

Abstract

Fullerenes, the third carbon allotrope, have emerged as agents which could revolutionize the treatment of many diseases. Fullerenes possess different biological applications like neuroprotective agents, antioxidants, anti-HIV activity, enzyme inhibition, antiapoptotic activity and the list is ever increasing. Moreover, they are being utilized as drug carrier systems and also for many non-biological applications like superconductors, catalysis and so on. Their size has made them promising agents for nanotechnology. This article aims at outlining the chemistry, properties and non-biological applications of fullerenes and their evolution to biological applications, thereby traversing their evolution from simple carbon allotropes to present day nano-medicinal agents.

Anti-HIV-1 nanotherapeutics: promises and challenges for the future

“…Surface modification of nanocarriers by modulating polymer characteristics on the nanocarrier surface allows controlled release of an anti-HIV drug from nanocarriers to achieve the desired therapeutic level in target tissue. 11,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22] Development of a biocompatible nanoformulation that can target HIV-1 in sequestered sites requires the use of functionalized nanoparticles that are engineered to deliver drugs to specific tissue or cell compartments. 28 also have the characteristic of long circulation time in blood and self-regulation of drug release, and have low toxicity and minimal side effects.…”

“…In general, the sizes of such nanoparticlebased delivery platforms range from 10 to 1000 nm and consist of therapeutic agents within the nanoparticle system. [18][19][20] Such a nanoparticle system increases solubility and enhances stability of mostly poorly water-soluble therapeutic agents such as antiretroviral drugs which are mostly hydrophobic, and protect them from interacting with nonspecific sites, thereby reducing toxicity. Table 3 lists the various antiretroviral nanoformulations used as HIV-1 therapeutics.…”

“…Another advantage of nanocarriers includes its ability to bypass the multidrug-resistant transporters, which may efflux drugs entering freely through the plasma membrane. [14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29] Inorganic solid lipid nanoparticles liposomes, polymeric micelles, dendrimers, cyclodextrins, and cell-based nanoformulations have been studied for delivery of drugs intended for HIV prevention or therapy. 43 For anti-HIV drugs to be effective, adequate distribution to specific sites in the body must be achieved, and effective drug concentrations must be maintained at those sites for the required period of time.…”

“…Targeted nanocarrier delivery involves (1) the recognition of HIV-infectable target cells and tissues; (2) the ability to reach these sites; and (3) the ability to deliver multiple therapeutic agents. [14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] Macrophages have been used as cellular transporters for antiretroviral nanoparticles or nanoformulated antiretroviral drugs (nano-ART) distribution and that the efficacy of antiretroviral medications can be significantly improved by repackaging them into nanoparticles. 24,29 Nowacek and Gendelman have shown that a single intravenous dose of the nano-ART can elicit high-sustained tissue and plasma drug levels of antiretroviral drugs in the reticuloendothelial system and brain.…”

“…[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10] The potential advantages of using nanomedicine over conventional HIV therapies include the capacity to incorporate, encapsulate, or conjugate a variety of drugs to target specific cell populations and to offer tunable and site-specific drug release. [11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] Table 1 outlines the different types of current nanotherapeutics in HIV and lists their advantages and limitations. Although HIV-1 nanotherapeutics have the potential to address key issues of traditional HIV-1 therapy, such as overcoming cellular • Nanoparticles induce strong humoral and cellular immunity, the mechanisms of which are as yet undefined and anatomical barriers, drug toxicity, drug resistance, suboptimal adherence, and virus sequestration, a number of obstacles remain which include safety and efficacy profiles and long-term toxicity, unwarranted immune response, and scale-up and cost considerations of large scale synthesis of these nanoparticle platforms.…”