From the perspective of embryonic tendon development: various cells applied to tendon tissue engineering

Abstract

There is a high risk of injury from damage to the force-bearing tissue of the tendon. Due to its poor self-healing ability, clinical interventions for tendon injuries are limited and yield unsatisfying results. Tissue engineering might supply an alternative to this obstacle. As one of the key elements of tissue engineering, various cell sources have been used for tendon engineering, but there is no consensue concerning a single optimal source. In this review, we summarized the development of tendon tissue from the embryonic stage and categorized the used cell sources in tendon engineering. By comparing various cell sources as the candidates for tendon regeneration, each cell type was found to have its advantages and limitations; therefore, it is difficult to define the best cell source for tendon engineering. The microenvironment cells located is also crucial for cell growth and differentiation; so, the optimal cells are unlikely to be the same for each patient. In the future, the clinical application of tendon engineering might be more precise and customized in contrast to the current use of a standardized/generic one-size-fits-all procedure. The best cell source for tendon engineering will require a case-based assessment.

First immunohistochemical evidence of human tendon repair following stem cell injection: A case report and review of literature

“…Some authors raised concerns about the use of ADSCs/ADRCs in tendon regeneration due to their assumed “indigenous” preference towards forming adipocytes'[ 64 , 65 ], albeit without reference to corresponding findings in the literature. We did not observe formation of adipocytes in the investigated biopsy.…”

First Immunohistochemical Evidence of Human Tendon Repair Following Stem Cell Injection: A Case Report and Review of Literature

“…Induction of differentiation and reconfirmation were most probably guided by complex signals released and communicated from the local microenvironment [43,44] . Some authors raised concerns about the use of ADSCs/ADRCs in tendon regeneration due to their assumed "indigenous" preference towards forming adipocytes' [64,65] , albeit without reference to corresponding findings in the literature. We did not observe formation of adipocytes in the investigated biopsy.…”

In Vitro Innovation of Tendon Tissue Engineering Strategies

“…The scientometric analysis revealed a consistent production on this topic ( Figure 6). Many techniques have been used to induce tenocyte differentiation, but a validated protocol still does not exist [161]. The validation of the tendon-inductive techniques is essential for the in vitro model, since it represents a preliminary step to all the applications in which differentiated cells can be used.…”