From pancreatic extracts to artificial pancreas: History, science and controversies about the discovery of the pancreatic antidiabetic hormone

100 years on: the impact of the discovery of insulin on clinical outcomes

“…10 Similarly, just 10 days after James Dexter Havens started insulin treatment, William Sansum in California successfully treated his first American patient, Charles E Cowan, who was 51 years old and, remarkably, lived for another 39 years without developing a single complication. 11 The first administration of insulin to a patient in Europe took place in Edinburgh, Scotland, at a similar time to the first administration of insulin by Elliott P Joslin in Boston, Massachusetts, USA, in August 1922. Given the impossibility of transporting the early (and initially very limited) supplies of insulin from Canada to Europe, the Edinburgh physicians had to make their own supply of insulin locally by following very detailed instructions provided by John Macleod.…”

“…12 Spain and Denmark also recorded their first treatments of patients with insulin shortly after the team in Edinburgh. 11 Despite the publication of a paper by Elliott P Joslin in June 1923 (reassuringly entitled 'The routine treatment of diabetes with insulin'), 13 in which he already established many core principles, including subcutaneous injection, administration before meals, regular testing of urine glucose before and after meals (blood glucose measurement was difficult and inaccurate before the development of the autoanalyser in the 1940s) and a belief that patients could be educated to self-administer insulin, it is important to note that there were many differing opinions and that in many countries the introduction of insulin was not straightforward. It raised new challenges for physicians who were treating patients with T1D, including the potential for hypoglycemia, the requirement for administration by injection and the complexity of adjusting the dose according to food intake and amount of exercise, which some physicians thought was too complex for patients to be expected to handle themselves without supervision.…”

“… 10 Similarly, just 10 days after James Dexter Havens started insulin treatment, William Sansum in California successfully treated his first American patient, Charles E Cowan, who was 51 years old and, remarkably, lived for another 39 years without developing a single complication. 11 …”

“… 12 Spain and Denmark also recorded their first treatments of patients with insulin shortly after the team in Edinburgh. 11 …”

Context-aware system for glycemic control in diabetic patients using neural networks

“…ANNs are widely applied in problems of nonlinear nature. The work presented in [21][22][23] used ANNs for making nonlinear glucose predictions and in some studies these networks were used in feedback control algorithms [23][24][25]. Other authors [26] presented a system comprising a neural network and compartmental model (CM).…”