“…Muslim governments' legislation concerning the state of exception is modelled on, or directly inherited from, legislation instituted by the European empires (Alzubairi, 2019; Hosen, 2010; Hussain, 2003; Kalhan, 2010; Lan, 2010; Miller & Feener, 2010; Ramraj & Thiruvengadam, 2010; Reza, 2007). Like the empires, Muslim governments (e.g., Egypt, Pakistan, Indonesia) typically justify a state of exception with reference to an extraordinary threat from their Muslim populations, especially those deemed to be fanatics/radicals or terrorists (Alzubairi, 2019; Hosen, 2010; Kalhan, 2010; Lan, 2010; Miller & Feener, 2010; Reza, 2007; Sounaye, 2021, p. 109). On the whole, Muslim governments use the same tactics as the empires, including heavily reliance on the military, restrictions on expression, restrictions on gatherings, mass surveillance, searches and arrests based on general suspicion, trials lacking safeguards (e.g., juries, attorneys), as well as significant use of torture and extrajudicial killings/disappearances (see e.g., Lamchek, 2019; Li, 2020; Slymovics, 2005).…”